Nuclear transport modulators and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to compounds of formula (I): and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compounds of formula I or their pharmaceutically acceptable salts, and methods of using said compounds, salts and compositions in the treatment of various disorders associated with CRM1 activity.

RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/273,857, filed on Dec. 31, 2015. The entire teachings of the above application is incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Cells from most major human solid and hematologic malignancies exhibit abnormal cellular localization of a variety of oncogenic proteins, tumor suppressor proteins, and cell cycle regulators (Cronshaw et al, 2004, Falini et al 2006). For example, certain p53 mutations lead to localization in the cytoplasm rather than in the nucleus. This results in the loss of normal growth regulation, despite intact tumor suppressor function. In other tumors, wild-type p53 is sequestered in the cytoplasm or rapidly degraded, again leading to loss of its suppressor function. Restoration of appropriate nuclear localization of functional p53 protein can normalize some properties of neoplastic cells (Cai et al, 2008; Hoshino et al 2008; Lain et al 1999a; Lain et al 1999b; Smart et al 1999), can restore sensitivity of cancer cells to DNA damaging agents (Cai et al, 2008), and can lead to regression of established tumors (Sharpless & DePinho 2007, Xue et al, 2007). Similar data have been obtained for other tumor suppressor proteins such as forkhead (Turner and Sullivan 2008) and c-Abl (Vignari and Wang 2001). In addition, abnormal localization of several tumor suppressor and growth regulatory proteins may be involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases (Davis 2007, Nakahara 2009). CRM1 inhibition may provide particularly interesting utility in familial cancer syndromes (e.g., Li-Fraumeni Syndrome due to loss of one p53 allele, BRCA1 or 2 cancer syndromes), where specific tumor suppressor proteins (TSP) are deleted or dysfunctional and where increasing TSP levels by systemic (or local) administration of CRM1 inhibitors could help restore normal tumor suppressor function.

Specific proteins and RNAs are carried into and out of the nucleus by specialized transport molecules, which are classified as importins if they transport molecules into the nucleus, and exportins if they transport molecules out of the nucleus (Terry et al, 2007; Sorokin et al 2007). Proteins that are transported into or out of the nucleus contain nuclear import/localization (NLS) or export (NES) sequences that allow them to interact with the relevant transporters. Chromosomal Region Maintenance 1 (CRM1), which is also called exportin-1 or Xpo1, is a major exportin.

Overexpression of CRM1 has been reported in several tumors, including human ovarian cancer (Noske et al, 2008), cervical cancer (van der Watt et al, 2009), pancreatic cancer (Huang et al, 2009), hepatocellular carcinoma (Pascale et al, 2005) and osteosarcoma (Yao et al, 2009) and is independently correlated with poor clinical outcomes in these tumor types.

Inhibition of CRM1 blocks the exodus of tumor suppressor proteins and/or growth regulators such as p53, c-Abl, p21, p27, pRB, BRCA1, IkB, ICp27, E2F4, KLF5, YAP1, ZAP, KLF5, HDAC4, HDAC5 or forkhead proteins (e.g. FOXO3a) from the nucleus that are associated with gene expression, cell proliferation, angiogenesis and epigenetics. CRM1 inhibitors have been shown to induce apoptosis in cancer cells even in the presence of activating oncogenic or growth stimulating signals, while sparing normal (untransformed) cells. Most studies of CRM1 inhibition have utilized the natural product CRM1 inhibitor Leptomycin B (LMB). LMB itself is highly toxic to neoplastic cells, but poorly tolerated with marked gastrointestinal toxicity in animals (Roberts et al, 1986) and humans (Newlands et al, 1996). Derivatization of LMB to improve drug-like properties leads to compounds that retain antitumor activity and are better tolerated in animal tumor models (Yang et al, 2007, Yang et al, 2008, Mutka et al, 2009). Therefore, nuclear export inhibitors could have beneficial effects in neoplastic and other proliferative disorders. To date, however, small-molecule, drug-like CRM1 inhibitors for use in vitro and in vivo are uncommon.

In addition to tumor suppressor proteins, CRM1 also exports several key proteins that are involved in many inflammatory processes. These include IkB, NF-kB, Cox-2, RXRα, Commd1, HIF1, HMGB1, FOXO, FOXP and others. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB/rel) family of transcriptional activators, named for the discovery that it drives immunoglobulin kappa gene expression, regulate the mRNA expression of variety of genes involved in inflammation, proliferation, immunity and cell survival. Under basal conditions, a protein inhibitor of NF-kB, called IkB, binds to NF-kB in the nucleus and the complex IkB-NF-kB renders the NF-kB transcriptional function inactive. In response to inflammatory stimuli, IkB dissociates from the IkB-NF-kB complex, which releases NF-kB and unmasks its potent transcriptional activity. Many signals that activate NF-kB do so by targeting IkB for proteolysis (Phosphorylation of IkB renders it “marked” for ubiquitination and then proteolysis). The nuclear IkBa-NF-kB complex can be exported to the cytoplasm by CRM1 where it dissociates and NF-kB can be reactivated. Ubiquitinated IkB may also dissociate from the NF-kB complex, restoring NF-kB transcriptional activity. Inhibition of CRM1 induced export in human neutrophils and macrophage like cells (U937) by LMB not only results in accumulation of transcriptionally inactive, nuclear IkBa-NF-kB complex but also prevents the initial activation of NF-kB even upon cell stimulation (Ghosh 2008, Huang 2000). In a different study, treatment with LMB inhibited IL-1β induced NF-kB DNA binding (the first step in NF-kB transcriptional activation), IL-8 expression and intercellular adhesion molecule expression in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (Walsh 2008). COMMD1 is another nuclear inhibitor of both NF-kB and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF1) transcriptional activity. Blocking the nuclear export of COMMD1 by inhibiting CRM1 results in increased inhibition of NF-kB and HIF1 transcriptional activity (Muller 2009).

CRM1 also mediates Retinoid X receptor α (RXRα) transport. RXRα is highly expressed in the liver and plays a central role in regulating bile acid, cholesterol, fatty acid, steroid and xenobiotic metabolism and homeostasis. During liver inflammation, nuclear RXRα levels are significantly reduced, mainly due to inflammation-mediated nuclear export of RXRα by CRM1. Lep B is able to prevent IL-10 induced cytoplasmic increase in RXRα levels in human liver derived cells (Zimmerman 2006).

The role of CRM1-mediated nuclear export in NF-kB, HIF-1 and RXRα signalling suggests that blocking nuclear export can be potentially beneficial in many inflammatory processes across multiple tissues and organs including the vasculature (vasculitis, arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatic, atherosclerosis), dermatologic (see above), rheumatologic (rheumatoid and related arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, spondyloarthropathies, crystal arthropathies, systemic lupus erythematosus, mixed connective tissue disease, myositis syndromes, dermatomyositis, inclusion body myositis, undifferentiated connective tissue disease, Sjogren's syndrome, scleroderma and overlap syndromes, etc.).

CRM1 Inhibition affects gene expression by inhibiting/activating a series of transcription factors like ICp27, E2F4, KLF5, YAP1, ZAP

CRM1 inhibition has potential therapeutic effects across many dermatologic syndromes including inflammatory dermatoses (atopy, allergic dermatitis, chemical dermatitis, psoriasis), sun-damage (Ultraviolet/UV damage), and infections. CRM1 inhibition, best studied with LMB, showed minimal effects on normal keratinocytes, and exerted anti-inflammatory activity on keratinocytes subjected to UV, TNFa, or other inflammatory stimuli (Kobayashi & Shinkai 2005, Kannan & Jaiswal 2006). CRM1 inhibition also upregulates NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2) activity, which protects keratinocytes (Schafer et al, 2010, Kannan & Jaiswal 2006) and other cell types (Wang et al, 2009) from oxidative damage. LMB induces apoptosis in keratinocytes infected with oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) strains such as HPV16, but not in uninfected keratinocytes (Jolly et al, 2009).

CRM1 also mediates the transport of key neuroprotectant proteins that may be useful in neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's Disease (PD), Alzheimer's Disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. For example, (1) forcing nuclear retention of key neuroprotective regulators such as NRF2 (Wang 2009), FOXA2 (Kittappa et al, 2007), parking in neuronal cells and/or by (2) inhibiting NFκB transcriptional activity by sequestering IκB to the nucleus in glial cells, CRM1 inhibition could slow or prevent neuronal cell death found in these disorders. There is also evidence linking abnormal glial cell proliferation to abnormalities in CRM1 levels or CRM1 function (Shen 2008).

Intact nuclear export, primarily mediated through CRM1, is also required for the intact maturation of many viruses. Viruses where nuclear export, and/or CRM1 itself, has been implicated in their lifecycle include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), adenovirus, simian retrovirus type 1, Borna disease virus, influenza (usual strains as well as H1N1 and avian H5N1 strains), hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses, human papillomavirus (HPV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), Dungee, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus, yellow fever virus, West Nile Virus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV). (Bhuvanakantham 2010, Cohen 2010, Whittaker 1998). It is anticipated that additional viral infections reliant on intact nuclear export will be uncovered in the near future.

The HIV-1 Rev protein, which traffics through nucleolus and shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm, facilitates export of unspliced and singly spliced HIV transcripts containing Rev Response Elements (RRE) RNA by the CRM1 export pathway. Inhibition of Rev-mediated RNA transport using CRM1 inhibitors such as LepB or PKF050-638 can arrest the HIV-1 transcriptional process, inhibit the production of new HIV-1 virions, and thereby reduce HIV-1 levels (Pollard 1998, Daelemans 2002).

Dengue virus (DENV) is the causative agent of the common arthropod-borne viral disease, dengue fever (DF), and its more severe and potentially deadly dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). DHF appears to be the result of an over exuberant inflammatory response to DENV. NS5 is the largest and most conserved protein of DENV. CRM1 regulates the transport of NS5 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where most of the NS5 functions are mediated. Inhibition of CRM1 mediated export of NS5 results in altered kinetics of virus production and reduces induction of the inflammatory chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8), presenting a new avenue for the treatment of diseases caused by DENV and other medically important flaviviruses including Hepatitis C virus (Rawlinson 2009).

Other virus-encoded RNA-binding proteins that use CRM1 to exit the nucleus include the HSV type 1 tegument protein (VP13/14, or hUL47), human CMV protein pp65, the SARS Coronavirus ORF 3b Protein, and the RSV matrix (M) protein (Williams 2008, Sanchez 2007, Freundt 2009, Ghildyal 2009).

Interestingly, many of these viruses are associated with specific types of human cancer including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) due to chronic HBV or HCV infection, cervical cancer due to HPV, and Merkel cell carcinoma associated with MCV. CRM1 inhibitors could therefore have beneficial effects on both the viral infectious process as well as on the process of neoplastic transformation due to these viruses.

CRM1 controls the nuclear localization and therefore activity of multiple DNA metabolizing enzymes including histone deacetylases (HDAC), histone acetyltransferases (HAT), and histone methyltransferases (HMT). Suppression of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy with irreversible CRM1 inhibitors has been demonstrated and is believed to be linked to nuclear retention (and activation) of HDAC 5, an enzyme known to suppress a hypertrophic genetic program (Monovich et al, 2009). Thus, CRM1 inhibition may have beneficial effects in hypertrophic syndromes, including certain forms of congestive heart failure and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies.

CRM1 has also been linked to other disorders. Leber's disorder, a hereditary disorder characterized by degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and visual loss, is associated with inaction of the CRM1 switch (Gupta N 2008). There is also evidence linking neurodegenerative disorders to abnormalities in nuclear transport.

In view of the above, the discovery of compounds that modulate nuclear transport is desirable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to compounds, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, useful as nuclear transport modulators; pharmaceutically acceptable compositions comprising compounds of the present invention or their pharmaceutically acceptable salts; and methods of using said compounds, salts and compositions in the treatment of various disorders.

The compounds of the invention have general formula I:

wherein each variable is as defined and described herein.

Compounds of the present invention and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and compositions thereof are useful for treating a variety of diseases, disorders or conditions associated with abnormal cellular responses triggered by improper nuclear transport. Therefore, one embodiment of the invention is use of a compound of the invention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, for treating a variety of diseases, disorders or conditions associated with abnormal cellular responses triggered by improper nuclear transport. Another embodiment of the invention is a method for treating a variety of diseases, disorders or conditions associated with CRM1 activity in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound the invention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or composition thereof. Such diseases, disorders, or conditions include those described herein.

Compounds of the invention, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, are also useful in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a variety of diseases, disorders or conditions associated with abnormal cellular responses triggered by improper nuclear transport. Such diseases, disorders, or conditions include those described herein.

Compounds provided by this invention are also useful for the study of nuclear transport modulation in biological and pathological phenomena; the study of intracellular signal transduction pathways mediated by, for example, kinases; and the comparative evaluation of new nuclear transport modulators.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Compounds of the Invention

A first embodiment of the invention is a compound of structural formula I:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   X is —C(H)— or —N—;     -   or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:         -   each R¹, if present, is independently selected from —CF₃,             —CN, halo, —OH, C₁-C₃ alkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, 3-18-membered             heterocyclyl, —NH₂, halo-C₁-C₃ alkyl, —NO₂, —NH(C₁-C₃             alkyl), —C(O)O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —N(C₁-C₃ alkyl)(C₁-C₃ alkyl),             —C(O)OH, —C(O)—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃             haloalkyl), and —S—(C₁-C₃ alkyl);         -   R² is a 6-18-membered aryl or a 5-18-membered heteroaryl             substituted with one or more substituents, wherein at least             one substituent is —S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸ or N(H)S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸;     -   R^(b) is selected from —C(O)—O—R³, —C(O)—N(R⁵)(R⁶),         —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁵)(R⁶), —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—C(O)—R⁴ and         —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—S(O)₁₋₂—R⁴; wherein:     -   R³ is selected from hydrogen, —C₁-C₄ alkyl, —C₂-C₄ alkenyl,         —C₂-C₄ alkynyl, C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, C₆-C₁₈ aryl, 3-18-member         heterocyclyl and 5-18-member heteroaryl;     -   R⁴ is selected from —N(H)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —N(C₁-C₄         alkyl)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —C₁-C₆ alkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-C₃-C₁₈         carbocyclyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl, —(C₀-C₄         alkylene)-C₆-C₁₈ aryl, and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-5-18-member         heteroaryl;     -   R⁵ and R⁶ are each independently selected from hydrogen, —C₁-C₄         alkyl, —C₂-C₄ alkenyl, —C₂-C₄ alkynyl, C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl,         C₆-C₁₈ aryl, 3-18-member heterocyclyl and 5-18-member         heteroaryl; or     -   R⁵ and R⁶ are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which         they are commonly attached to form a 3-18-member heterocyclyl or         5-18-member heteroaryl; and     -   each R⁷ is independently hydrogen or —C₁-C₄ alkyl;     -   R⁸ is selected from —N(R⁹)—R¹⁰, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, (C₁-C₄)haloalkyl,         —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, and —(C₀-C₄         alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl;     -   R⁹ is hydrogen or —C₁-C₄ alkyl;     -   R¹⁰ is selected from —(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)haloalkyl, —(C₀-C₄         alkylene)-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member         heterocyclyl; or     -   R⁹ and R¹⁰ are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which         they are commonly attached to form a 4-7-membered heterocyclyl;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, wherein:     -   unless otherwise designated, each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         alkylene, carbocyclyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl and         heteroaryl is optionally and independently substituted.

In a first aspect of the first embodiment, X is N. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment.

In a second aspect of the first embodiment, —C(H). The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment.

In a third aspect of the first embodiment, R^(b) is selected from —C(O)—OH, —C(O)—NH₂, —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁵)(R⁶), —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—C(O)—R⁴ and —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—S(O)₁₋₂—R⁴. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first and second aspects thereof.

In a fourth aspect of the first embodiment, R^(b) is selected from —C(O)—OH; —C(O)—NH₂; —C(O)—NH—NH(R⁶), wherein R⁶ is an optionally substituted heteroaryl;

—C(O)—NH—NH—C(O)—R⁴; and —C(O)—NH—NH—S(O)₁₋₂—R⁴ wherein R⁴ is selected from optionally substituted —N(H)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —N(C₁-C₄ alkyl)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —C₁-C₆ alkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-5-18-member heteroaryl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first and second aspects thereof.

In a fifth aspect, R^(b) is —C(O)NH₂. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first and second aspects thereof.

In a sixth aspect, R² is a 6-12-membered aryl or a 5-12-membered heteroaryl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In a seventh aspect of the first embodiment, R² is phenyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In a eighth aspect of the first embodiment, R² is a 5-6-membered heteroaryl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In an ninth aspect of the first embodiment, R² is a 5-membered heteroaryl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In a tenth aspect of the first embodiment, R² is pyrrolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, thiadiazolyl, or oxadiazolyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In an eleventh aspect of the first embodiment, R² is a 6-membered heteroaryl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In a twelfth aspect of the first embodiment, R² is pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl or triazinyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fifth aspects thereof.

In a thirteenth aspect of the first embodiment, the at least one substituent of R² is —S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through twelfth aspects thereof.

In a fourteenth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is —N(R⁹)—R¹⁰. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth aspects thereof.

In a fifteenth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is —N(Me)-Me or —N(H)— cyclopropyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through fourteenth aspects thereof.

In a sixteenth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is —(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)haloalkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene) C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, or —(C₀-C₄ alkylene) 3-18-member heterocyclyl wherein each alkyl, carbocyclyl and heterocyclyl is optionally substituted. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth aspects thereof.

In a seventeenth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is optionally substituted (C₀-C₄ alkylene) C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth or sixteenth aspects thereof.

In an eighteenth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is optionally substituted (C₃-C₆)-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclcyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth, sixteenth or seventeenth aspects thereof.

In a nineteenth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is optionally substituted cyclopropyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth or sixteenth through eighteenth aspects thereof.

In a twentieth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is optionally substituted 3-12-membered heterocyclyl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth aspects thereof.

In a twenty-first aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is pyrrolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, thiadiazolyl, or oxadiazolyl; and wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth or twentieth aspects thereof.

In a twenty-second aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is optionally substituted with 1, 2 or 3 substituents independently selected from halo, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, halo-(C₁-C₄)alkyl, (C₁-C₄)alkoxy, (C₁-C₄)thioalkoxy, hydroxyl, amino, (C₁-C₄)alkylamino, (C₁-C₄)dialkylamino, sulfhydryl, cyano, phenyl and a 5-6-membered heteroaryl. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through twenty-first aspects thereof.

In a twenty-third aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is substituted with 1, 2 or 3 substituents independently selected from halo, hydroxyl, halo(C₁-C₃)alkyl, (C₁-C₃)alkyl and (C₁-C₃)alkoxy. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through twenty-first aspects thereof.

In a twenty-fourth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is optionally substituted with 1, 2 or 3 substituents independently selected from fluoro, chloro, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, —CF₃, amino and cyano. The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through twenty-first aspects thereof.

In a twenty-fifth aspect of the first embodiment, R⁸ is selected from:

The values for the remaining variables are as described in the first embodiment or the first through thirteenth aspects thereof.

In a twenty-sixth aspect of the first embodiment, n is 0, 1 or 2. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment or the first through twenty-sixth aspects thereof.

In a twenty-seventh aspect of the first embodiment, n is 1 or 2 and each R¹ is independently selected from halo, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, (C₁-C₄)haloalkyl and —O—(C₁-C₄)alkyl. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment or the first through twenty-sixth aspects thereof.

A second embodiment of the invention is a compound represented by structural formula III:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment or the third through twenty-fifth aspects thereof.

A third embodiment of the invention is a compound represented by the following structural formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   R^(1a) and R^(1b) are independently selected from —CF₃, —CN,         halo, —OH, (C₁-C₃)alkyl, (C₃-C₆)cycloalkyl, 3-12-membered         heterocyclyl, halo-(C₁-C₃)alkyl, —NH₂, —NO₂, —NH(C₁-C₃ alkyl),         —N(C₁-C₃ alkyl)(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —C(O)OH, —C(O)O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl),         —C(O)—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ haloalkyl), and         —S—(C₁-C₃ alkyl); and m is 0 or 1. The values for the remaining         variable are as described in the first embodiment and the first         through twenty-fifth aspects thereof.

In a first aspect of the third embodiment, R^(1a) is halo or (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment and the first through twenty-fifth aspects thereof.

In a second aspect of the third embodiment, R^(1a) is (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment, the first through twenty-fifth aspects thereof or the third embodiment.

In a third aspect of the third embodiment, R^(1b) is (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl or —O(C₁-C₃)alkyl. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment, the first through twenty-fifth aspects thereof, the third embodiment or the first or second aspect of the third embodiment.

In a fourth aspect of the third embodiment, R^(1b) is (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment, the first through twenty-fifth aspects thereof, the third embodiment or the first or second aspect of the third embodiment.

In a fifth aspect of the third embodiment, R^(1a) is —CF₃ and R^(1b) is —CF₃. The values for the remaining variable are as described in the first embodiment, the first through twenty-fifth aspects thereof or the third embodiment.

A fourth embodiment of the invention is a compound represented by any one of the following structural formulas:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Compounds and Definitions

Compounds of this invention include those described generally above, and are further illustrated by the classes, subclasses, and species disclosed herein. As used herein, the following definitions shall apply unless otherwise indicated. For purposes of this invention, the chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th) Ed. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry are described in “Organic Chemistry”, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito: 1999, and “March's Advanced Organic Chemistry”, 5^(th) Ed., Ed.: Smith, M. B. and March, J., John Wiley & Sons, New York: 2001, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

Unless specified otherwise within this specification, the nomenclature used in this specification generally follows the examples and rules stated in Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, Sections A, B, C, D, E, F, and H, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1979, which is incorporated by reference herein for its exemplary chemical structure names and rules on naming chemical structures. Optionally, a name of a compound may be generated using a chemical naming program: ACD/ChemSketch, Version 5.09/September 2001, Advanced Chemistry Development, Inc., Toronto, Canada.

Compounds of the present invention may have asymmetric centers, chiral axes, and chiral planes (e.g., as described in: E. L. Eliel and S. H. Wilen, Stereo-chemistry of Carbon Compounds, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994, pages 1119-1190), and occur as racemates, racemic mixtures, and as individual diastereomers or enantiomers, with all possible isomers and mixtures thereof, including optical isomers, being included in the present invention.

The term “aliphatic” or “aliphatic group,” as used herein, denotes a monovalent hydrocarbon radical that is straight-chain (i.e., unbranched), branched, or cyclic (including fused, bridged, and spiro-fused polycyclic). An aliphatic group can be saturated or can contain one or more units of unsaturation, but is not aromatic. Unless otherwise specified, aliphatic groups contain 1-20 carbon atoms. However, in some embodiments, an aliphatic group contains 1-12, 1-10, 2-8 or 1-6 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-4 carbon atoms and, in yet other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-3 carbon atoms. Suitable aliphatic groups include, but are not limited to, linear or branched, alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups, and hybrids thereof, such as (cycloalkyl)alkyl, (cycloalkenyl)alkyl or (cycloalkyl)alkenyl. Unless otherwise specified, aliphatic groups are optionally substituted.

The term “alkyl,” as used herein, pertains to a monovalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from a carbon atom of a hydrocarbon compound having a given number of carbon atoms. The alkyl can be a linear or branched alkyl of one to twenty carbon atoms (e.g., 1-6 carbon atoms, 1-4 carbon atoms, 1-3 carbon atoms). Examples of alkyl include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, 1-propyl, 2-propyl, 1-butyl, 2-methyl-1-propyl, —CH₂CH(CH₃)₂), 2-butyl, 2-methyl-2-propyl, 1-pentyl, 2-pentyl 3-pentyl, 2-methyl-2-butyl, 3-methyl-2-butyl, 3-methyl-1-butyl, 2-methyl-1-butyl, 1-hexyl), 2-hexyl, 3-hexyl, 2-methyl-2-pentyl, 3-methyl-2-pentyl, 4-methyl-2-pentyl, 3-methyl-3-pentyl, 2-methyl-3-pentyl, 2,3-dimethyl-2-butyl, 3,3-dimethyl-2-butyl, 1-heptyl, 1-octyl, and the like. Typically, the alkyl is a C₁-C₁₂ alkyl, preferably C₁-C₆. As such, “C₁-C₆ alkyl” means a straight or branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical having from one to six carbon atoms (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6). Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, and t-butyl. Unless otherwise specified, alkyl groups are optionally substituted

The term “alkoxy,” as used herein, means an “alkyl-O—” group, wherein alkyl is defined above. Examples of alkoxy include methoxy and ethoxy.

“Alkenyl” refers to linear or branched-chain monovalent hydrocarbon radical of the specified number of carbons. For example, alkenyl can have two to twenty carbon atoms (e.g., 2-10 or 2-4) with at least one site of unsaturation, i.e., a carbon-carbon, double bond. The alkenyl radical includes radicals having “cis” and “trans” orientations, or alternatively, “E” and “Z” orientations. Examples include, but are not limited to, vinyl (—CH═CH₂), allyl (—CH₂CH═CH₂), and the like. If an alkenyl group includes more than one carbon-carbon double bond, each carbon-carbon double bond is independently a cis or trans double bond, or a mixture thereof. Unless otherwise specified, alkenyl groups are optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

“Alkynyl” refers to a linear or branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical of the specificed number of carbons. For example, alkynyl can have two to twenty carbon atoms (e.g., 2-4 with at least one site of unsaturation, i.e., a carbon-carbon, triple bond. Examples include, but are not limited to, ethynyl, propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 1-pentynyl, 2-pentynyl, 3-pentynyl, hexynyl, and the like. Preferably, the alkynyl has two to ten carbon atoms. More preferably, the alkynyl has two to four carbon atoms. Unless otherwise specified, alkynyl groups are optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

As used herein, the term “alkylene” refers to an alkyl group having the specified number of carbons, for example from 2 to 12 carbon atoms, that contains two points of attachment to the rest of the compound on its longest carbon chain. Non-limiting examples of alkylene groups include methylene —(CH₂)—, ethylene —(CH₂CH₂)—, n-propylene —(CH₂CH₂CH₂)—, isopropylene —(CH₂CH(CH₃))—, and the like. Alkylene groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

The term “amino,” as used herein, refers to a chemical moiety having the formula N(R)₂, wherein each R is independently selected from hydrogen and (C₁-C₄)alkyl.

The term “aryl,” alone or in combination, as used herein, means an aromatic hydrocarbon radical of 6-18 carbon atoms (i.e., 6-18-membered aryl) derived by the removal of hydrogen atom from a carbon atom of a parent aromatic ring system. In some instances, an aryl group has 6-12 carbon atoms (i.e., 6-12-membered aryl). Some aryl groups are represented in the exemplary structures as “Ar.” Aryl includes bicyclic radicals comprising an aromatic ring fused to a saturated, partially unsaturated ring, or aromatic carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring. In particular embodiments, aryl is one, two or three rings. Typical aryl groups include, but are not limited to, radicals derived from benzene (phenyl), substituted benzenes, naphthalene (naphthyl), anthracene (anthryl) etc. Other aryl groups include, indanyl, biphenyl, phenanthryl, acenaphthyl and the like. Preferably, aryl is phenyl group. An aryl group can be optionally substituted as defined and described herein.

The terms “cycloaliphatic,” “carbocyclyl,” “carbocyclo,” and “carbocyclic,” used alone or as part of a larger moiety, refer to a radical of a saturated or partially unsaturated cyclic aliphatic monocyclic or bicyclic ring system, as described herein, having the specified number of carbons. Exemplary carbocyclys have from 3 to 18 carbon atoms, for example 3 to 12 carbon atoms, wherein the aliphatic ring system is optionally substituted as defined and described herein. Bicyclic carbocycles having 7 to 12 atoms can be arranged, for example, as a bicyclo [4,5], [5,5], [5,6], or [6,6] system, and bicyclic carbocycles having 9 or 10 ring atoms can be arranged as a bicyclo [5,6] or [6,6] system, or as bridged systems such as bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, bicyclo[2.2.2]octane and bicyclo[3.2.2]nonane. The aliphatic ring system is optionally substituted as defined and described herein. Examples of monocyclic carbocycles include, but are not limited to, cycloalkyls and cycloalkenyls, such as cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, 1-cyclopent-1-enyl, 1-cyclopent-2-enyl, 1-cyclopent-3-enyl, cyclohexyl, 1-cyclohex-1-enyl, l-cyclohex-2-enyl, 1-cyclohex-3-enyl, cyclohexadienyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, cyclononyl, cyclodecyl, cycloundecyl, cyclododecyl, and the like. The terms “cycloaliphatic,” “carbocyclyl,” “carbocyclo,” and “carbocyclic” also include aliphatic rings that are fused to one or more aromatic or nonaromatic rings, such as decahydronaphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, decalin, or bicyclo[2.2.2]octane.

The terms “cyclic alkyl” and “cycloalkyl” can be used interchangeably. They refer to a saturated carbocyclic ring radical of the specified number of carbons. Typically, the cyclic alkyl is a 3-7-membered monocyclic ring radical. Examples of cycloalkyl include, but are not limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and cycloheptyl. In some embodiments, cycloalkyl can optionally be substituted with one or more substituents selected from OH, SH, halogen, amino, nitro, cyano, C₁-C₁₂ alkyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkenyl or C₂-C₁₂ alkynyl group, C₁-C₁₂ alkoxy, C₁-C₁₂ haloalkyl, and C₁-C₁₂ haloalkoxy.

The term “cyclic alkenyl” refers to a carbocyclic ring radical having the specified number of carbons and having at least one double bond in the ring structure.

The term “cyclic alkynyl” refers to a carbocyclic ring radical having the specified number of carbons and having at least one triple bond in the ring structure.

The term “halo” or “halogen” as used herein means halogen and includes, for example, and without being limited thereto, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo and the like, in both radioactive and non-radioactive forms. In a preferred embodiment, halo is selected from the group consisting of fluoro, chloro and bromo.

The term “haloalkyl”, as used herein, includes an alkyl substituted with one or more F, Cl, Br, or I, wherein alkyl is defined above.

The term “heteroaryl”, as used herein, refers to an aromatic radical of 5-18 ring atoms (i.e., a 5-18-membered heteroaryl), containing one or more heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. A heteroaryl group can be monocyclic or polycyclic, e.g. a monocyclic heteroaryl ring fused to one or more carbocyclic aromatic groups or other monocyclic heteroaryl groups. The heteroaryl groups of this invention can also include ring systems substituted with one or more oxo moieties. In one aspect, heteroaryl has from 5-15 ring atoms (i.e., 5-15-membered heteroaryl), such as a 5-12-membered ring and, typically, has 5 or 6 ring atoms (i.e., a 5-6-membered-heteroaryl). In certain instances, heteroaryl is a 5-membered heteroaryl and in other instances heteroaryl is a 6-membered heteroaryl. Examples of heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, imidazolyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, pyrazinyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, tetrazolyl, furyl, thienyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isothiazolyl, pyrrolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, indolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzofuranyl, cinnolinyl, indazolyl, indolizinyl, phthalazinyl, pyridazinyl, triazinyl, isoindolyl, purinyl, oxadiazolyl, thiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, furazanyl, benzofurazanyl, benzothiophenyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, quinazolinyl, quinoxalinyl, naphthyridinyl, dihydroquinolyl, tetrahydroquinolyl, dihydroisoquinolyl, tetrahydroisoquinolyl, benzofuryl, furopyridinyl, pyrolopyrimidinyl, and azaindolyl. The foregoing heteroaryl groups may be C-attached or N-attached (where such is possible). For instance, a group derived from pyrrole may be pyrrol-1-yl (N-attached) or pyrrol-3-yl (C-attached). A heteroaryl group can be optionally substituted as defined and described herein.

The terms “heterocycle,” “heterocyclyl,” and “heterocyclic ring” are used interchangeably herein and refer to a saturated or a partially unsaturated (i.e., having one or more double and/or triple bonds within the ring) carbocyclic radical of the specified number of carbons. Typically the heterocyclyl has from 3 to 18 ring atoms (i.e., a 3-18-membered-heterocyclyl) in which at least one ring atom is a heteroatom selected nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, the remaining ring atoms being C, where one or more ring atoms is optionally substituted independently with one or more substituents described herein. Typical heterocyclyls have from 3-12 ring atoms (i.e., 3-12-membered heterocyclyl). In some instance, heterocyclyls have from 4-7 ring atoms (i.e., 4-7-membered heterocyclyl. When one heteroatom is S, it can be optionally mono or dioxygenated (i.e. S(O) or S(O)₂). The heterocyclyl can be monocyclic or polycyclic, in which case the rings can be attached together in a pendent manner or can be fused or Spiro. A heterocycle may be a monocycle having 3 to 7 ring members (2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 to 4 heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S) or a bicycle having 7 to 10 ring members (4 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 6 heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S), for example: a bicyclo [4,5], [5,5], [5,6], or [6,6] system. Heterocycles are described in Paquette, Leo A.; Principles of Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry (W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1968), particularly Chapters 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9; The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, A series of Monographs (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1950 to present), in particular Volumes 13, 14, 16, 19, and 28; and J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1960) 82:5566. “Heterocyclyl” also includes radicals where heterocycle radicals are fused with a saturated, partially unsaturated ring, or aromatic carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring, Examples of heterocyclic rings include, but are not limited to, pyrrolidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, piperidino, morpholino, thiomorpholino, thioxanyl, piperazinyl, homopiperazinyl, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, thietanyl, homopiperidinyl, oxepanyl, thiepanyl, oxazepinyl, diazepinyl, thiazepinyl, 2-pyrrolinyl, 3-pyrrolinyl, indolinyl 2H-pyranyl, 4H-pyranyl, dioxanyl, 1,3-dioxolanyl, pyrazolinyl, dithianyl, dithiolanyl, dihydropyranyl, dihydrothienyl, dihydrofuranyl, pyrazolidinylimidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, 3-azabicyco[3.1.0]hexanyl, 3-azabicyclo[4.1.0]heptanyl, and azabicyclo[2.2.2]hexanyl. Spiro moieties are also included within the scope of this definition. Examples of a heterocyclic group wherein ring atoms are substituted with oxo moieties are pyrimidinonyl and 1,1-dioxo-thiomorpholinyl.

The heterocycle or heteroaryl groups may be carbon (carbon-linked) or nitrogen (nitrogen-linked) attached where such is possible. By way of example and not limitation, carbon bonded heterocycles or heteroaryls are bonded at position 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyridine, position 3, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyridazine, position 2, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyrimidine, position 2, 3, 5, or 6 of a pyrazine, position 2, 3, 4, or 5 of a furan, tetrahydrofuran, thiofuran, thiophene, pyrrole or tetrahydropyrrole, position 2, 4, or 5 of an oxazole, imidazole or thiazole, position 3, 4, or 5 of an isoxazole, pyrazole, or isothiazole, position 2 or 3 of an aziridine, position 2, 3, or 4 of an azetidine, position 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 of a quinoline or position 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 of an isoquinoline.

By way of example and not limitation, nitrogen bonded heterocycles or heteroaryls are bonded at position 1 of an aziridine, azetidine, pyrrole, pyrrolidine, 2-pyrroline, 3-pyrroline, imidazole, imidazolidine, 2-imidazoline, 3-imidazoline, pyrazole, pyrazoline, 2-pyrazoline, 3-pyrazoline, piperidine, piperazine, indole, indoline, 1H-indazole, position 2 of a isoindole, or isoindoline, position 4 of a morpholine, and position 9 of a carbazole, or O-carboline.

The heteroatoms present in heteroaryl or heterocyclcyl include the oxidized forms such as NO, SO, and SO₂.

“Hydroxyl” means OH.

“Oxo” means ═O.

“Thioalkoxy” means S-alkyl, wherein alkyl is defined as above.

The alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cyclic alkyl, cyclic alkenyl, cyclic alkynyl, carbocyclyl, aryl, heterocyclyl and heteroaryl described above can be optionally substituted with one or more (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or more) substituents.

If a substituent is described as being “substituted,” a non-hydrogen substituent is in the place of a hydrogen substituent on a carbon, oxygen, sulfur or nitrogen of the substituent. Thus, for example, a substituted alkyl substituent is an alkyl substituent wherein at least one non-hydrogen substituent is in the place of a hydrogen substituent on the alkyl substituent. To illustrate, monofluoroalkyl is alkyl substituted with a fluoro substituent, and difluoroalkyl is alkyl substituted with two fluoro substituents. It should be recognized that if there is more than one substitution on a substituent, each non-hydrogen substituent may be identical or different (unless otherwise stated).

It is understood that substituents and substitution patterns on the compounds of the invention can be selected by one of ordinary skill in the art to provide compounds that are chemically stable and that can be readily synthesized by techniques known in the art, as well as those methods set forth below. If a substituent is described as being “optionally substituted,” the substituent may be either (1) not substituted, or (2) substituted. If a carbon of a substituent is described as being optionally substituted with one or more of a list of substituents, one or more of the hydrogens on the carbon may separately and/or together be replaced with an independently selected optional substituent. If a nitrogen of a substituent is described as being optionally substituted with one or more of a list of substituents, one or more of the hydrogens on the nitrogen may each be replaced with an independently selected optional substituent.

This specification uses the terms “substituent,” “radical,” and group interchangeably.

Combinations of substituents envisioned by this invention are preferably those that result in the formation of stable or chemically feasible compounds. If a substituent is itself substituted with more than one group, it is understood that these multiple groups can be on the same carbon atom or on different carbon atoms, as long as a stable structure results. The term “stable,” as used herein, refers to compounds that are not substantially altered when subjected to conditions to allow for their production, detection, and, in certain embodiments, their recovery, purification, and use for one or more of the purposes disclosed herein.

Suitable monovalent substituents on a substitutable carbon atom of an “optionally substituted group” are independently halogen; —(CH₂)₀₋₄R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄OR^(o); —O(CH₂)₀₋₄R^(o), —O—(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄CH(OR^(o) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄SR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄Ph, which may be substituted with R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph which may be substituted with R^(o); —CH═CHPh, which may be substituted with R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄O(CH₂)₀₋₁-pyridyl which may be substituted with R^(o); —NO₂; —CN; —N₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(o) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(o)C(O)R^(o); —N(R^(o))C(S)R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(o))C(O)NR^(o))₂; —N(R^(o))C(S)NR^(o) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(o))C(O)OR^(o); —N(R^(o))N(R^(o))C(O)R^(o); —N(R^(o))N(R^(o))C(O)NR^(o) ₂; —N(R^(o))N(R^(o))C(O)OR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)R^(o); —C(S)R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)SR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OSiR^(o) ₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)R^(o); —OC(O)(CH₂)₀₋₄SR^(o), SC(S)SR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄SC(O)R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)NR^(o) ₂; —C(S)NR^(o) ₂; —C(S)SR^(o); —SC(S)SR^(o), —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)NR^(o) ₂; —C(O)N(OR^(o))R^(o); —C(O)C(O)R^(o); —C(O)CH₂C(O)R^(o); —C(NOR^(o))R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄SSR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂R^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂OR^(o); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂R^(o); —S(O)₂NR^(o) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)R^(o); —N(R^(o)S(O)₂NR^(o) ₂; —N(R^(o)S(O)₂R^(o); —N(OR^(o))R^(o); —C(NH)NR^(o) ₂; —P(O)₂R^(o); —P(O)R^(o) ₂; —OP(O)R^(o) ₂; —OP(O)(OR^(o))₂; SiR^(o) ₃; —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched)alkylene)O—N(R^(o))₂; or —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched) alkylene)C(O)O—N(R^(o))₂, wherein each R^(o) may be substituted as defined below and is independently hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, —CH₂-(5-6 membered heteroaryl ring), or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R^(o), taken together with their intervening atom(s), form a 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl monocyclic or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, which may be substituted as defined below.

Suitable monovalent substituents on R^(o) (or the ring formed by taking two independent occurrences of R^(o) together with their intervening atoms), are independently halogen, —(CH₂)₀₋₂R^(●), -(haloR^(●)), —(CH₂)₀₋₂OH, —(CH₂)₀₋₂OR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂CH(OR^(●))₂; —O(haloR^(●)), —CN, —N₃, —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)R^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)OH, —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)OR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂SR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂SH, —(CH₂)₀₋₂NH₂, —(CH₂)₀₋₂NHR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂NR^(●) ₂, —NO₂, —OSiR^(●) ₃, —C(O)SR^(●), —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkylene)C(O)OR^(●), or —SSR^(●) wherein each R′ is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently selected from C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of R^(o) include ═O and ═S.

Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of an “optionally substituted group” include the following: ═O, ═S, ═NNR*₂, ═NNHC(O)R*, ═NNHC(O)OR*, —NNHS(O)₂R*, —NR*, —NOR*, —O(C(R^(*) ₂))₂₋₃O—, and —S(C(R^(*) ₂))₂₋₃S—, wherein each independent occurrence of R* is selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents that are bound to vicinal substitutable carbons of an “optionally substituted” group include: —O(CR*₂)₂₋₃O—, wherein each independent occurrence of R* is selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R* include halogen, —R^(●), -(haloR^(●)), —OH, —OR^(●), —O(haloR^(●)), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR^(●), —NH₂, —NHR^(●), —NR^(●) ₂, and —NO₂, wherein each R^(●) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on a substitutable nitrogen of an “optionally substituted group” include —R^(†), —NR^(†) ₂, —C(O)R^(†), —C(O)OR^(†), —C(O)C(O)R^(†), —C(O)CH₂C(O)R^(†), —S(O)₂R^(†), —S(O)₂NR^(†) ₂, —C(S)NR^(†) ₂, —C(NH)NR^(†) ₂, and —N(R^(†))S(O)₂R^(†); wherein each R^(†) is independently hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, unsubstituted —OPh, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R^(†), taken together with their intervening atom(s) form an unsubstituted 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl monocyclic or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of Rt are independently halogen, —R^(●), -(haloR^(●)), —OH, —OR^(●), —O(haloR^(●)), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR^(●), —NH₂, —NHR^(●), —NR●₂, or —NO₂, wherein each R^(●) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Preferred substituents on heteroaryl can be selected from the group consisting of —OH, —SH, nitro, halogen, amino, cyano, C₁-C₁₂ alkyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkenyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkynyl, C₁-C₁₂ alkoxy, C₁-C₁₂ haloalkyl, C₁-C₁₂ haloalkoxy and C₁-C₁₂ thioalkoxy. Preferred substituents on alkyl, alkylene and heterocyclyl include the preferred substituents on heteroaryl and oxo. In one embodiment, the substituent on an alkyl, alkylene, heterocyclyl or heteroaryl is an amino group having the formula —N(R)₂, wherein each R is independently selected from hydrogen and C₁-C₄ alkyl.

The term “stereoisomer” refers to compounds which have identical chemical constitution and connectivity, but different orientations of their atoms in space that cannot interconverted by rotation about single bonds.

“Diastereomer” refers to a stereoisomer with two or more centers of chirality and whose molecules are not mirror images of one another. Diastereomers have different physical properties, e.g. melting points, boiling points, spectral properties, and reactivities. Mixtures of diastereomers may separate under high resolution analytical procedures such as crystallization, electrophoresis and chromatography.

“Enantiomers” refer to two stereoisomers of a compound which are non-superimposable mirror images of one another.

Stereochemical definitions and conventions used herein generally follow S. P. Parker, Ed., McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms (1984) McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York; and Eliel, E. and Wilen, S., Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1994. The compounds of the invention may contain asymmetric or chiral centers, and therefore exist in different stereoisomeric forms. It is intended that all stereoisomeric forms of the compounds of the invention, including but not limited to, diastereomers, enantiomers and atropisomers, as well as mixtures thereof such as racemic mixtures, form part of the present invention. Many organic compounds exist in optically active forms, i.e., they have the ability to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light. In describing an optically active compound, the prefixes D and L, or R and S, are used to denote the absolute configuration of the molecule about its chiral center(s). The prefixes d and I or (+) and (−) are employed to designate the sign of rotation of plane-polarized light by the compound, with (−) or l meaning that the compound is levorotatory. A compound prefixed with (+) or d is dextrorotatory. For a given chemical structure, these stereoisomers are identical except that they are mirror images of one another. A specific stereoisomer may also be referred to as an enantiomer, and a mixture of such isomers is often called an enantiomeric mixture. A 50:50 mixture of enantiomers is referred to as a racemic mixture or a racemate, which may occur where there has been no stereo selection or stereo specificity in a chemical reaction or process. The terms “racemic mixture” and “racemate” refer to an equimolar mixture of two enantiomeric species, devoid of optical activity.

The term “tautomer” or “tautomeric form” refers to structural isomers of different energies which are interconvertible via a low energy barrier. For example, proton tautomers (also known as prototropic tautomers) include interconversions via migration of a proton, such as keto-enol and imine-enamine isomerizations. Valence tautomers include interconversions by reorganization of some of the bonding electrons.

Unless otherwise stated, structures depicted herein are also meant to include all isomeric (e.g., enantiomeric, diastereomeric, and geometric (or conformational)) forms of the structure; for example, the R and S configurations for each asymmetric center, Z and E double bond isomers, and Z and E conformational isomers. Therefore, single stereoisomers as well as enantiomeric, diastereomeric, and geometric (or conformational) mixtures of the present compounds are within the scope of the invention. Unless otherwise stated, all tautomeric forms of the compounds of the invention are within the scope of the invention.

Unless specifically indicated (by a chemical name or other indicator designating double bond geometry, for example), each structural formula used herein is meant to include compounds having a carbon-carbon double bond (e.g., an exocyclic double bond) with a configuration that is cis (or Z), trans (or E), or a mixture of cis and trans. For example, formula I:

is meant to denote both:

and mixtures thereof.

As used herein, “exocyclic double bond” refers to the carbon-carbon double bond in a compound of formula I indicated with an arrow in the following structure:

In some embodiments described herein, the exocyclic double bond is in a cis configuration. In other embodiments, the exocyclic double bond is in a trans configuration.

The Exemplification reflects whether the exocyclic double bond in a given compound exists in a cis or trans configuration by indicating the configuration of the exocyclic double bond in the chemical name associated with the given compound.

As used herein, “cis” or “cis configuration” refers to a carbon-carbon double bond, typically an exocyclic double bond, that is predominantly cis. In some embodiments, greater than about 85% of compound molecules in a mixture of the compound have a carbon-carbon double bond (e.g., an exocyclic double bond) that is cis. In some embodiments, greater than about 90%, greater than about 95%, greater than about 98%, greater than about 99%, greater than about 99.5% or greater than about 99.8% of compound molecules in a mixture of the compound have a carbon-carbon double bond (e.g., an exocyclic double bond) that is cis.

As used herein, “trans” or “trans configuration” refers to a carbon-carbon double bond, typically an exocyclic double bond, that is predominantly trans. In some embodiments, greater than about 85% of compound molecules in a mixture of the compound have a carbon-carbon double bond (e.g., an exocyclic double bond) that is cis. In some embodiments, greater than about 90%, greater than about 95%, greater than about 98%, greater than about 99%, greater than about 99.5% or greater than about 99.8% of compound molecules in a mixture of the compound have a carbon-carbon double bond (e.g., an exocyclic double bond) that is cis.

Additionally, unless otherwise stated, structures depicted herein are also meant to include compounds that differ only in the presence of one or more isotopically enriched atoms. For example, compounds having the present structures including the replacement of hydrogen by deuterium or tritium, or the replacement of a carbon by a ¹³C- or ¹⁴C-enriched carbon are within the scope of this invention. Such compounds are useful, for example, as analytical tools, as probes in biological assays, or as therapeutic agents in accordance with the present invention.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” means either an acid addition salt or a basic addition salt which is compatible with the treatment of patients.

In some embodiments, exemplary inorganic acids which form suitable salts include, but are not limited thereto, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric and phosphoric acid and acid metal salts such as sodium monohydrogen orthophosphate and potassium hydrogen sulfate. Illustrative organic acids which form suitable salts include the mono-, di- and tricarboxylic acids. Illustrative of such acids are, for example, acetic, trifluoroacetic acid (2,2,2-trifluoroacetic acid), glycolic, lactic, pyruvic, malonic, succinic, glutaric, fumaric, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, maleic, hydroxymaleic, benzoic, hydroxybenzoic, phenylacetic, cinnamic, salicylic, 2-phenoxybenzoic, p-toluenesulfonic acid and other sulfonic acids such as methanesulfonic acid and 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid. Either the mono- or di-acid salts can be formed, and such salts can exist in either a hydrated, solvated or substantially anhydrous form. In general, the acid addition salts of these compounds are more soluble in water and various hydrophilic organic solvents, and generally demonstrate higher melting points in comparison to their free base forms. Other non-pharmaceutically acceptable salts, e.g., oxalates may be used, for example, in the isolation of compounds described herein for laboratory use, or for subsequent conversion to a pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt.

A “pharmaceutically acceptable basic addition salt” is any non-toxic organic or inorganic base addition salt of the acid compounds described herein or any of its intermediates. Illustrative inorganic bases which form suitable salts include, but are not limited thereto, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium or barium hydroxides. Illustrative organic bases which form suitable salts include aliphatic, alicyclic or aromatic organic amines such as methylamine, trimethyl amine and picoline or ammonia. The selection of the appropriate salt may be important so that an ester functionality, if any, elsewhere in the molecule is not hydrolyzed. The selection criteria for the appropriate salt will be known to one skilled in the art.

Acid addition salts of the compounds described herein are most suitably formed from pharmaceutically acceptable acids, and include, for example, those formed with inorganic acids, e.g., hydrochloric, sulphuric or phosphoric acids and organic acids, e.g., succinic, maleic, acetic, trifluoroacetic or fumaric acid. Other non-pharmaceutically acceptable salts, e.g., oxalates may be used for example in the isolation of compounds described herein for laboratory use, or for subsequent conversion to a pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt. Also included within the scope of the invention are base addition salts (such as sodium, potassium and ammonium salts), solvates and hydrates of compounds of the invention. The conversion of a given compound salt to a desired compound salt is achieved by applying standard techniques, well known to one skilled in the art.

The term “treat” or “treating” means to alleviate symptoms, eliminate the causation of the symptoms either on a temporary or permanent basis, or to prevent or slow the appearance of symptoms of the named disorder or condition.

As used herein, “promoting wound healing” means treating a subject with a wound and achieving healing, either partially or fully, of the wound. Promoting wound healing can mean, e.g., one or more of the following: promoting epidermal closure; promoting migration of the dermis; promoting dermal closure in the dermis; reducing wound healing complications, e.g., hyperplasia of the epidermis and adhesions; reducing wound dehiscence; and promoting proper scab formation.

The term “therapeutically effective amount” means that amount of active compound that elicits the desired biological response in a subject. Such response includes alleviation of the symptoms of the disease or disorder being treated, prevention, inhibition or a delay in the recurrence of a symptom of the disease or of the disease itself, an increase in the longevity of the subject compared with the absence of the treatment, or prevention, inhibition or delay in the progression of symptom of the disease or of the disease itself. Determination of the effective amount is well within the capability of those skilled in the art. Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of the compounds of the invention can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures and in experimental animals. The effective amount of compound of the present invention or other therapeutic agent to be administered to a subject will depend on the stage, category and status of the disease or disorder being treated and characteristics of the subject, such as general health, age, sex, body weight and drug tolerance. The effective amount of compound of the present invention or other therapeutic agent to be administered will also depend on administration route and dosage form. Dosage amount and interval can be adjusted individually to provide plasma levels of the active compound that are sufficient to maintain desired therapeutic effects.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” means a non-toxic solvent, dispersant, excipient, adjuvant or other material which is mixed with the active ingredient in order to permit the formation of a pharmaceutical composition, i.e., a dosage form capable of being administered to a subject. One example of such a carrier is pharmaceutically acceptable oil typically used for parenteral administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are well known in the art.

When introducing elements disclosed herein, the articles “a”, “an”, “the”, and “said” are intended to mean that there are one or more of the elements. The terms “comprising”, “having”, “including” are intended to be open-ended and mean that there may be additional elements other than the listed elements.

Uses, Formulation and Administration

Pharmaceutically Acceptable Compositions

According to another embodiment, the invention provides a composition comprising a compound of this invention or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, adjuvant, or vehicle. The amount of compound in compositions of this invention is such that is effective to measurably inhibit CRM1, in a biological sample or in a patient. In certain embodiments, a composition of this invention is formulated for administration to a patient in need of such composition. The term “patient”, as used herein, means an animal. In some embodiments, the animal is a mammal. In certain embodiments, the patient is a veterinary patient (i.e., a non-human mammal patient). In some embodiments, the patient is a dog. In other embodiments, the patient is a human.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, adjuvant, or vehicle” refers to a non-toxic carrier, adjuvant, or vehicle that does not destroy the pharmacological activity of the compound with which it is formulated. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants or vehicles that may be used in the compositions of this invention include, but are not limited to, ion exchangers, alumina, aluminum stearate, lecithin, serum proteins, such as human serum albumin, buffer substances such as phosphates, glycine, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, partial glyceride mixtures of saturated vegetable fatty acids, water, salts or electrolytes, such as protamine sulfate, disodium hydrogen phosphate, potassium hydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride, zinc salts, colloidal silica, magnesium trisilicate, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, cellulose-based substances, polyethylene glycol, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyacrylates, waxes, polyethylene-polyoxypropylene-block polymers, polyethylene glycol and wool fat.

Compositions of the present invention may be administered orally, parenterally (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous and intradermal), by inhalation spray, topically, rectally, nasally, buccally, vaginally or via an implanted reservoir. In some embodiments, provided compounds or compositions are administrable intravenously and/or intraperitoneally.

The term “parenteral” as used herein includes subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intraocular, intravitreal, intra-articular, intra-synovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, intrahepatic, intraperitoneal intralesional and intracranial injection or infusion techniques. Preferably, the compositions are administered orally, subcutaneously, intraperitoneally or intravenously. Sterile injectable forms of the compositions of this invention may be aqueous or oleaginous suspension. These suspensions may be formulated according to techniques known in the art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium.

Pharmaceutically acceptable compositions of this invention may be orally administered in any orally acceptable dosage form including, but not limited to, capsules, tablets, aqueous suspensions or solutions. In the case of tablets for oral use, carriers commonly used include lactose and corn starch. Lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, are also typically added. For oral administration in a capsule form, useful diluents include lactose and dried cornstarch. When aqueous suspensions are required for oral use, the active ingredient is combined with emulsifying and suspending agents. If desired, certain sweetening, flavoring or coloring agents may also be added. In some embodiments, a provided oral formulation is formulated for immediate release or sustained/delayed release. In some embodiments, the composition is suitable for buccal or sublingual administration, including tablets, lozenges and pastilles. A provided compound can also be in micro-encapsulated form.

Alternatively, pharmaceutically acceptable compositions of this invention may be administered in the form of suppositories for rectal administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable compositions of this invention may also be administered topically, especially when the target of treatment includes areas or organs readily accessible by topical application, including diseases of the eye, the skin, or the lower intestinal tract. Suitable topical formulations are readily prepared for each of these areas or organs.

Topical application for the lower intestinal tract can be effected in a rectal suppository formulation (see above) or in a suitable enema formulation. Topically-transdermal patches may also be used.

For ophthalmic use, provided pharmaceutically acceptable compositions may be formulated as micronized suspensions or in an ointment such as petrolatum.

Pharmaceutically acceptable compositions of this invention may also be administered by nasal aerosol or inhalation.

In some embodiments, pharmaceutically acceptable compositions of this invention are formulated for intra-peritoneal administration.

The amount of compounds of the present invention that may be combined with the carrier materials to produce a composition in a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated, the particular mode of administration. In one embodiment, provided compositions should be formulated so that a dosage of between 0.01-100 mg/kg body weight/day of the inhibitor can be administered to a patient receiving these compositions. In another embodiment, the dosage is from about 0.5 to about 100 mg/kg of body weight, or between 1 mg and 1000 mg/dose, every 4 to 120 hours, or according to the requirements of the particular drug. Typically, the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention will be administered from about 1 to about 6 times per day.

It should also be understood that a specific dosage and treatment regimen for any particular patient will depend upon a variety of factors, including the activity of the specific compound employed, the age, body weight, general health, sex, diet, time of administration, rate of excretion, drug combination, and the judgment of the treating physician and the severity of the particular disease being treated. The amount of a compound of the present invention in the composition will also depend upon the particular compound in the composition.

Upon improvement of a patient's condition, a maintenance dose of a compound, composition or combination of this invention may be administered, if necessary. Subsequently, the dosage or frequency of administration, or both, may be reduced, as a function of the symptoms, to a level at which the improved condition is retained when the symptoms have been alleviated to the desired level. Patients may, however, require intermittent treatment on a long-term basis upon any recurrence of disease symptoms

Uses of Compounds and Pharmaceutically Acceptable Compositions

Compounds and compositions described herein are generally useful for the inhibition of CRM1 and are therefore useful for treating one or more disorders associated with activity of CRM1. Thus, in certain embodiments, the present invention provides a method for treating a CRM1-mediated disorder comprising the step of administering to a patient in need thereof a compound of the present invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable composition thereof. The compounds and compositions described herein can also be administered to cells in culture, e.g. in vitro or ex vivo, or to a subject, e.g., in vivo, to treat, prevent, and/or diagnose a variety of disorders, including those described herein below.

The activity of a compound utilized in this invention as an inhibitor of CRM1 may be assayed in vitro, in vivo or in a cell line. Detailed conditions for assaying a compound utilized in this invention as an inhibitor of CRM1 are set forth in the Examples below.

As used herein, the term “CRM1-mediated” disorder or condition, as used herein, means any disease or other deleterious condition in which CRM1 is known to play a role. Accordingly, another embodiment of the present invention relates to treating or lessening the severity of one or more diseases in which CRM1 is known to play a role. In some embodiments, the present invention provides methods of treating a disease associated with expression or activity of p53, p73, p21, pRB, p2′7, IKB, NFκB, c-Abl, FOXO proteins, COX-2, or an HDAC (histone deacetylases) in a subject comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound described herein. In another embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of treating or lessening the severity of a disease or condition selected from a proliferative disorder (e.g., cancer), an inflammatory disorder, an autoimmune disorder, a viral infection, an ophthalmological disorder or a neurodegenerative disorder wherein said method comprises administering to a patient in need thereof a compound or composition according to the present invention. In a more specific embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of treating or lessening the severity of cancer. Specific examples of the above disorders are set forth in detail below.

Cancers treatable by the compounds of this invention include, but are not limited to, hematologic malignancies (leukemias, lymphomas, myelomas including multiple myeloma, myelodysplastic and myeloproliferative syndromes) and solid tumors (carcinomas such as prostate, breast, lung, colon, pancreatic, renal, ovarian as well as soft tissue and osteosarcomas, and stromal tumors). Breast cancer (BC) can include basal-like breast cancer (BLBC), triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) and breast cancer that is both BLBC and TNBC. In addition, breast cancer can include invasive or non-invasive ductal or lobular carcinoma, tubular, medullary, mucinous, papillary, cribriform carcinoma of the breast, male breast cancer, recurrent or metastatic breast cancer, phyllodes tumor of the breast and Paget's disease of the nipple.

Inflammatory disorders treatable by the compounds of this invention include, but are not limited to, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, degenerative joint disease, systemic lupus, systemic sclerosis, vasculitis syndromes (small, medium and large vessel), atherosclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn's disease, mucous colitis, ulcerative colitis, gastritis, sepsis, psoriasis and other dermatological inflammatory disorders (such as eczema, atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, urticaria, scleroderma, and dermatosis with acute inflammatory components, pemphigus, pemphigoid, allergic dermatitis), and urticarial syndromes.

Viral diseases treatable by the compounds of this invention include, but are not limited to, acute febrile pharyngitis, pharyngoconjunctival fever, epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, infantile gastroenteritis, Coxsackie infections, infectious mononucleosis, Burkitt lymphoma, acute hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, primary HSV-1 infection (e.g., gingivostomatitis in children, tonsillitis and pharyngitis in adults, keratoconjunctivitis), latent HSV-1 infection (e.g., herpes labialis and cold sores), primary HSV-2 infection, latent HSV-2 infection, aseptic meningitis, infectious mononucleosis, Cytomegalic inclusion disease, Kaposi's sarcoma, multicentric Castleman disease, primary effusion lymphoma, AIDS, influenza, Reye syndrome, measles, postinfectious encephalomyelitis, Mumps, hyperplastic epithelial lesions (e.g., common, flat, plantar and anogenital warts, laryngeal papillomas, epidermodysplasia verruciformis), cervical carcinoma, squamous cell carcinomas, croup, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, common cold, Poliomyelitis, Rabies, influenza-like syndrome, severe bronchiolitis with pneumonia, German measles, congenital rubella, Varicella, and herpes zoster. Viral diseases treatable by the compounds of this invention also include chronic viral infections, including hepatitis B and hepatitis C.

Exemplary ophthalmology disorders include, but are not limited to, macular edema (diabetic and nondiabetic macular edema), aged related macular degeneration wet and dry forms, aged disciform macular degeneration, cystoid macular edema, palpebral edema, retina edema, diabetic retinopathy, chorioretinopathy, neovascular maculopathy, neovascular glaucoma, uveitis, iritis, retinal vasculitis, endophthalmitis, panophthalmitis, metastatic ophthalmia, choroiditis, retinal pigment epitheliitis, conjunctivitis, cyclitis, scleritis, episcleritis, optic neuritis, retrobulbar optic neuritis, keratitis, blepharitis, exudative retinal detachment, corneal ulcer, conjunctival ulcer, chronic nummular keratitis, ophthalmic disease associated with hypoxia or ischemia, retinopathy of prematurity, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy, retinal angiomatous proliferation, retinal artery occlusion, retinal vein occlusion, Coats' disease, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, pulseless disease (Takayasu's disease), Eales disease, antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, leukemic retinopathy, blood hyperviscosity syndrome, macroglobulinemia, interferon-associated retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, radiation retinopathy, corneal epithelial stem cell deficiency or cataract.

Neurodegenerative diseases treatable by a compound of Formula I include, but are not limited to, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's, and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS/Lou Gehrig's Disease).

Compounds and compositions described herein may also be used to treat disorders of abnormal tissue growth and fibrosis including dilative cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, restrictive cardiomyopathy, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic fibrosis, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disorder (PKD) and other renal disorders.

Compounds and compositions described herein may also be used to treat disorders related to food intake such as obesity and hyperphagia.

In another embodiment, a compound or composition described herein may be used to treat or prevent allergies and respiratory disorders, including asthma, bronchitis, pulmonary fibrosis, allergic rhinitis, oxygen toxicity, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and any chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

In some embodiments, the disorder or condition associated with CRM1 activity is beta thalassemia, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, for example, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondilitis, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, sepsis, rheumatic disease, cancer atherosclerosis, type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, leptospiriosis renal disease, glaucoma, retinal disease, ageing, headache, pain, complex regional pain syndrome, cardiac hypertrophy, musclewasting, catabolic disorders, obesity, fetal growth retardation, hypercholesterolemia, heart disease, chronic heart failure, ischemia/reperfusion, stroke, cerebral aneurysm, angina pectoris, pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, acid-induced lung injury, pulmonary hypertension, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Sjogren's syndrome, hyaline membrane disease, kidney disease, glomerular disease, alcoholic liver disease, gut diseases, peritoneal endometriosis, skin diseases, nasal sinusitis, mesothelioma, anhidrotic ecodermal dysplasia-ID, behcet's disease, incontinentia pigmenti, tuberculosis, asthma, crohn's disease, colitis, ocular allergy, appendicitis, paget's disease, pancreatitis, periodonitis, endometriosis, inflammatory bowel disease, inflammatory lung disease, silica-induced diseases, sleep apnea, AIDS, HIV-1, autoimmune diseases, antiphospholipid syndrome, lupus, lupus nephritis, familial mediterranean fever, hereditary periodic fever syndrome, psychosocial stress diseases, neuropathological diseases, familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy, inflammatory neuropathy, parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, alzheimer's disease, amyotropic lateral sclerosis, huntington's disease, cataracts, or hearing loss.

In other embodiments, the disorder or condition associated with CRM1 activity is head injury, uveitis, inflammatory pain, allergen induced asthma, non-allergen induced asthma, glomerular nephritis, ulcerative colitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, hyperimmunoglobulinemia D with recurrent fever (HIDS), TNF receptor associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS), cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes, Muckle-Wells syndrome (urticaria deafness amyloidosis), familial cold urticaria, neonatal onset multisystem inflammatory disease (NOMID), periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis (PFAPA syndrome), Blau syndrome, pyogenic sterile arthritis, pyoderma gangrenosum, acne (PAPA), deficiency of the interleukin-1-receptor antagonist (DIRA), subarachnoid hemorrhage, polycystic kidney disease, transplant, organ transplant, tissue transplant, myelodysplastic syndrome, irritant-induced inflammation, plant irritant-induced inflammation, poison ivy/urushiol oil-induced inflammation, chemical irritant-induced inflammation, bee sting-induced inflammation, insect bite-induced inflammation, sunburn, burns, dermatitis, endotoxemia, lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, alcoholic hepatitis, or kidney injury caused by parasitic infections.

In further aspects, the present invention provides a use of a compound described herein for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a disease associated with expression or activity of p53, p73, p21, pRB, p2′7, IκB, NFκB, c-Abl, FOXO proteins, COX-2 or an HDAC in a subject. In some embodiments, the present invention provides a use of a compound described herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of any of cancer and/or neoplastic disorders, angiogenesis, autoimmune disorders, inflammatory disorders and/or diseases, epigenetics, hormonal disorders and/or diseases, viral diseases, neurodegenerative disorders and/or diseases, wounds, and ophthalmologic disorders.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a method for inhibiting CRM1 in a biological sample comprising contacting the biological sample with, or administering to the patient, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable composition thereof.

Neoplastic Disorders

A compound or composition described herein can be used to treat a neoplastic disorder. A “neoplastic disorder” is a disease or disorder characterized by cells that have the capacity for autonomous growth or replication, e.g., an abnormal state or condition characterized by proliferative cell growth. Exemplary neoplastic disorders include: carcinoma, sarcoma, metastatic disorders, e.g., tumors arising from prostate, brain, bone, colon, lung, breast, ovarian, and liver origin, hematopoietic neoplastic disorders, e.g., leukemias, lymphomas, myeloma and other malignant plasma cell disorders, and metastatic tumors. Prevalent cancers include: breast, prostate, colon, lung, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Treatment with the compound can be in an amount effective to ameliorate at least one symptom of the neoplastic disorder, e.g., reduced cell proliferation, reduced tumor mass, etc.

The disclosed methods are useful in the prevention and treatment of cancer, including for example, solid tumors, soft tissue tumors, and metastases thereof, as well as in familial cancer syndromes such as Li Fraumeni Syndrome, Familial Breast-Ovarian Cancer (BRCA1 or BRAC2 mutations) Syndromes, and others. The disclosed methods are also useful in treating non-solid cancers. Exemplary solid tumors include malignancies (e.g., sarcomas, adenocarcinomas, and carcinomas) of the various organ systems, such as those of lung, breast, lymphoid, gastrointestinal (e.g., colon), and genitourinary (e.g., renal, urothelial, or testicular tumors) tracts, pharynx, prostate, and ovary. Exemplary adenocarcinomas include colorectal cancers, renal-cell carcinoma, liver cancer, non-small cell carcinoma of the lung, and cancer of the small intestine.

Exemplary cancers described by the National Cancer Institute include: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Adult; Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Childhood; Acute Myeloid Leukemia, Adult; Adrenocortical Carcinoma; Adrenocortical Carcinoma, Childhood; AIDS-Related Lymphoma; AIDS-Related Malignancies; Anal Cancer; Astrocytoma, Childhood Cerebellar; Astrocytoma, Childhood Cerebral; Bile Duct Cancer, Extrahepatic; Bladder Cancer; Bladder Cancer, Childhood; Bone Cancer, Osteosarcoma/Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma; Brain Stem Glioma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Adult; Brain Tumor, Brain Stem Glioma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Cerebellar Astrocytoma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Cerebral Astrocytoma/Malignant Glioma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Ependymoma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Medulloblastoma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Supratentorial Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Visual Pathway and Hypothalamic Glioma, Childhood; Brain Tumor, Childhood (Other); Breast Cancer; Breast Cancer and Pregnancy; Breast Cancer, Childhood; Breast Cancer, Male; Bronchial Adenomas/Carcinoids, Childhood; Carcinoid Tumor, Childhood; Carcinoid Tumor, Gastrointestinal; Carcinoma, Adrenocortical; Carcinoma, Islet Cell; Carcinoma of Unknown Primary; Central Nervous System Lymphoma, Primary; Cerebellar Astrocytoma, Childhood; Cerebral Astrocytoma/Malignant Glioma, Childhood; Cervical Cancer; Childhood Cancers; Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia; Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia; Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders; Clear Cell Sarcoma of Tendon Sheaths; Colon Cancer; Colorectal Cancer, Childhood; Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma; Endometrial Cancer; Ependymoma, Childhood; Epithelial Cancer, Ovarian; Esophageal Cancer (e.g., esophageal squamous cell cancer); Esophageal Cancer, Childhood; Ewing's Family of Tumors; Extracranial Germ Cell Tumor, Childhood; Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumor; Extrahepatic Bile Duct Cancer; Eye Cancer, Intraocular Melanoma; Eye Cancer, Retinoblastoma; Gallbladder Cancer; Gastric (Stomach) Cancer; Gastric (Stomach) Cancer, Childhood; Gastrointestinal Carcinoid Tumor; Germ Cell Tumor, Extracranial, Childhood; Germ Cell Tumor, Extragonadal; Germ Cell Tumor, Ovarian; Gestational Trophoblastic Tumor; Glioma, Childhood Brain Stem; Glioma, Childhood Visual Pathway and Hypothalamic; Hairy Cell Leukemia; Head and Neck Cancer; Hepatocellular (Liver) Cancer, Adult (Primary); Hepatocellular (Liver) Cancer, Childhood (Primary); Hodgkin's Lymphoma, Adult; Hodgkin's Lymphoma, Childhood; Hodgkin's Lymphoma During Pregnancy; Hypopharyngeal Cancer; Hypothalamic and Visual Pathway Glioma, Childhood; Intraocular Melanoma; Islet Cell Carcinoma (Endocrine Pancreas); Kaposi's Sarcoma; Kidney Cancer; Laryngeal Cancer; Laryngeal Cancer, Childhood; Leukemia, Acute Lymphoblastic, Adult; Leukemia, Acute Lymphoblastic, Childhood; Leukemia, Acute Myeloid, Adult; Leukemia, Acute Myeloid, Childhood; Leukemia, Chronic Lymphocytic; Leukemia, Chronic Myelogenous; Leukemia, Hairy Cell; Lip and Oral Cavity Cancer; Liver Cancer, Adult (Primary); Liver Cancer, Childhood (Primary); Lung Cancer, Non-Small Cell; Lung Cancer, Small Cell; Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Adult Acute; Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Childhood Acute; Lymphocytic Leukemia, Chronic; Lymphoma, AIDS-Related; Lymphoma, Central Nervous System (Primary); Lymphoma, Cutaneous T-CeIl; Lymphoma, Hodgkin's, Adult; Lymphoma, Hodgkin's, Childhood; Lymphoma, Hodgkin's During Pregnancy; Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin's, Adult; Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin's, Childhood; Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin's During Pregnancy; Lymphoma, Primary Central Nervous System; Macroglobulinemia, Waldenstrom's; Male Breast Cancer; Malignant Mesothelioma, Adult; Malignant Mesothelioma, Childhood; Malignant Thymoma; Medulloblastoma, Childhood; Melanoma; Melanoma, Intraocular; Merkel Cell Carcinoma; Mesothelioma, Malignant; Metastatic Squamous Neck Cancer with Occult Primary; Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndrome, Childhood; Multiple Myeloma/Plasma Cell Neoplasm; Mycosis Fungoides; Myelodysplastic Syndromes; Myelogenous Leukemia, Chronic; Myeloid Leukemia, Childhood Acute; Myeloma, Multiple; Myeloproliferative Disorders, Chronic; Nasal Cavity and Paranasal Sinus Cancer; Nasopharyngeal Cancer; Nasopharyngeal Cancer, Childhood; Neuroblastoma; Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma, Adult; Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma, Childhood; Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma During Pregnancy; Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer; Oral Cancer, Childhood; Oral Cavity and Lip Cancer; Oropharyngeal Cancer; Osteosarcoma/Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone; Ovarian Cancer, Childhood; Ovarian Epithelial Cancer; Ovarian Germ Cell Tumor; Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumor; Pancreatic Cancer; Pancreatic Cancer, Childhood; Pancreatic Cancer, Islet Cell; Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer; Parathyroid Cancer; Penile Cancer; Pheochromocytoma; Pineal and Supratentorial Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors, Childhood; Pituitary Tumor; Plasma Cell Neoplasm/Multiple Myeloma; Pleuropulmonary Blastoma; Pregnancy and Breast Cancer; Pregnancy and Hodgkin's Lymphoma; Pregnancy and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma; Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma; Primary Liver Cancer, Adult; Primary Liver Cancer, Childhood; Prostate Cancer; Rectal Cancer; Renal Cell (Kidney) Cancer; Renal Cell Cancer, Childhood; Renal Pelvis and Ureter, Transitional Cell Cancer; Retinoblastoma; Rhabdomyosarcoma, Childhood; Salivary Gland Cancer; Salivary Gland Cancer, Childhood; Sarcoma, Ewing's Family of Tumors; Sarcoma, Kaposi's; Sarcoma (Osteosarcoma)/Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone; Sarcoma, Rhabdomyosarcoma, Childhood; Sarcoma, Soft Tissue, Adult; Sarcoma, Soft Tissue, Childhood; Sezary Syndrome; Skin Cancer; Skin Cancer, Childhood; Skin Cancer (Melanoma); Skin Carcinoma, Merkel Cell; Small Cell Lung Cancer; Small Intestine Cancer; Soft Tissue Sarcoma, Adult; Soft Tissue Sarcoma, Childhood; Squamous Neck Cancer with Occult Primary, Metastatic; Stomach (Gastric) Cancer; Stomach (Gastric) Cancer, Childhood; Supratentorial Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors, Childhood; T-Cell Lymphoma, Cutaneous; Testicular Cancer; Thymoma, Childhood; Thymoma, Malignant; Thyroid Cancer; Thyroid Cancer, Childhood; Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter; Trophoblastic Tumor, Gestational; Unknown Primary Site, Cancer of, Childhood; Unusual Cancers of Childhood; Ureter and Renal Pelvis, Transitional Cell Cancer; Urethral Cancer; Uterine Sarcoma; Vaginal Cancer; Visual Pathway and Hypothalamic Glioma, Childhood; Vulvar Cancer; Waldenstrom's Macroglobulinemia; and Wilms' Tumor.

Further exemplary cancers include diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). Yet further exemplary cancers include endocervical cancer, B-cell ALL, T-cell ALL, B- or T-cell lymphoma, mast cell cancer, glioblastoma, neuroblastoma, follicular lymphoma and Richter's syndrome.

Exemplary sarcomas include fibrosarcoma, alveolar soft part sarcoma (ASPS), liposarcoma, leiomyosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, synovial sarcoma, chordoma, spindle cell sarcoma, histiocytoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, neuroectodermal sarcoma, phyllodes/osteogenic sarcoma and chondroblastic osteosarcoma.

Metastases of the aforementioned cancers can also be treated or prevented in accordance with the methods described herein.

Combination Therapies

In some embodiments, a compound described herein is administered together with an additional “second” therapeutic agent or treatment. The choice of second therapeutic agent may be made from any agent that is typically used in a monotherapy to treat the indicated disease or condition. As used herein, the term “administered together” and related terms refers to the simultaneous or sequential administration of therapeutic agents in accordance with this invention. For example, a compound of the present invention may be administered with another therapeutic agent simultaneously or sequentially in separate unit dosage forms or together in a single unit dosage form. Accordingly, the present invention provides a single unit dosage form comprising a compound of the invention, an additional therapeutic agent, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, adjuvant, or vehicle.

In one embodiment of the invention, where a second therapeutic agent is administered to a subject, the effective amount of the compound of this invention is less than its effective amount would be where the second therapeutic agent is not administered. In another embodiment, the effective amount of the second therapeutic agent is less than its effective amount would be where the compound of this invention is not administered. In this way, undesired side effects associated with high doses of either agent may be minimized. Other potential advantages (including without limitation improved dosing regimens and/or reduced drug cost) will be apparent to those of skill in the art. The additional agents may be administered separately, as part of a multiple dose regimen, from the compounds of this invention. Alternatively, those agents may be part of a single dosage form, mixed together with the compounds of this invention in a single composition.

Cancer Combination Therapies

In some embodiments, a compound described herein is administered together with an additional cancer treatment. Exemplary additional cancer treatments include, for example: chemotherapy, targeted therapies such as antibody therapies, kinase inhibitors, immunotherapy, and hormonal therapy, epigenetic therapy, proteosome inhibitors (e.g., carfilzomib), and anti-angiogenic therapies. Examples of each of these treatments are provided below. As used herein, the term “combination,” “combined,” and related terms refer to the simultaneous or sequential administration of therapeutic agents in accordance with this invention. For example, a compound of the present invention can be administered with another therapeutic agent simultaneously or sequentially in separate unit dosage forms or together in a single unit dosage form. Accordingly, the present invention provides a single unit dosage form comprising a compound of the invention, an additional therapeutic agent, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, adjuvant, or vehicle.

The amount of both a compound of the invention and additional therapeutic agent (in those compositions which comprise an additional therapeutic agent as described above) that can be combined with the carrier materials to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. Preferably, compositions of this invention should be formulated so that a dosage of between 0.01-100 mg/kg body weight/day of a compound of the invention can be administered.

Chemotherapy

In some embodiments, a compound described herein is administered with a chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs that can destroy cancer cells. “Chemotherapy” usually refers to cytotoxic drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with targeted therapy. Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g., with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific for cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can.

Examples of chemotherapeutic agents used in cancer therapy include, for example, antimetabolites (e.g., folic acid, purine, and pyrimidine derivatives) and alkylating agents (e.g., nitrogen mustards, nitrosoureas, platinum, alkyl sulfonates, hydrazines, triazenes, aziridines, spindle poison, cytotoxic agents, topoisomerase inhibitors and others). Exemplary agents include Aclarubicin, Actinomycin, Alitretinoin, Altretamine, Aminopterin, Aminolevulinic acid, Amrubicin, Amsacrine, Anagrelide, Arsenic trioxide, Asparaginase, Atrasentan, Belotecan, Bexarotene, Bendamustin, Bleomycin, Bortezomib, Busulfan, Camptothecin, Capecitabine, Carboplatin, Carboquone, Carmofur, Carmustine, Celecoxib, Chlorambucil, Chlormethine, Cisplatin, Cladribine, Clofarabine, Crisantaspase, Cyclophosphamide, Cytarabine, Dacarbazine, Dactinomycin, Daunorubicin, Decitabine, Demecolcine, Docetaxel, Doxorubicin, Efaproxiral, Elesclomol, Elsamitrucin, Enocitabine, Epirubicin, Estramustine, Etoglucid, Etoposide, Floxuridine, Fludarabine, Fluorouracil (5FU), Fotemustine, Gemcitabine, Gliadel implants, Hydroxycarbamide, Hydroxyurea, Idarubicin, Ifosfamide, Irinotecan, Irofulven, Ixabepilone, Larotaxel, Leucovorin, Liposomal doxorubicin, Liposomal daunorubicin, Lonidamine, Lomustine, Lucanthone, Mannosulfan, Masoprocol, Melphalan, Mercaptopurine, Mesna, Methotrexate, Methyl aminolevulinate, Mitobronitol, Mitoguazone, Mitotane, Mitomycin, Mitoxantrone, Nedaplatin, Nimustine, Oblimersen, Omacetaxine, Ortataxel, Oxaliplatin, Paclitaxel, Pegaspargase, Pemetrexed, Pentostatin, Pirarubicin, Pixantrone, Plicamycin, Porfimer sodium, Prednimustine, Procarbazine, Raltitrexed, Ranimustine, Rubitecan, Sapacitabine, Semustine, Sitimagene ceradenovec, Strataplatin, Streptozocin, Talaporfin, Tegafur-uracil, Temoporfin, Temozolomide, Teniposide, Tesetaxel, Testolactone, Tetranitrate, Thiotepa, Tiazofurine, Tioguanine, Tipifarnib, Topotecan, Trabectedin, Triaziquone, Triethylenemelamine, Triplatin, Tretinoin, Treosulfan, Trofosfamide, Uramustine, Valrubicin, Verteporfin, Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vindesine, Vinflunine, Vinorelbine, Vorinostat, Zorubicin, and other cytostatic or cytotoxic agents described herein.

Because some drugs work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at the same time. Often, two or more chemotherapy agents are used as combination chemotherapy. In some embodiments, the chemotherapy agents (including combination chemotherapy) can be used in combination with a compound described herein.

Targeted Therapy

Targeted therapy constitutes the use of agents specific for the deregulated proteins of cancer cells. Small molecule targeted therapy drugs are generally inhibitors of enzymatic domains on mutated, overexpressed, or otherwise critical proteins within the cancer cell. Prominent examples are the tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as Axitinib, Bosutinib, Cediranib, desatinib, erolotinib, imatinib, gefitinib, lapatinib, Lestaurtinib, Nilotinib, Semaxanib, Sorafenib, Sunitinib, and Vandetanib, and also cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors such as Alvocidib and Seliciclib. Monoclonal antibody therapy is another strategy in which the therapeutic agent is an antibody which specifically binds to a protein on the surface of the cancer cells. Examples include the anti-HER2/neu antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin®) typically used in breast cancer, and the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab and Tositumomab typically used in a variety of B-cell malignancies. Other exemplary antibodies include Cetuximab, Panitumumab, Trastuzumab, Alemtuzumab, Bevacizumab, Edrecolomab, and Gemtuzumab. Exemplary fusion proteins include Aflibercept and Denileukin diftitox. In some embodiments, the targeted therapy can be used in combination with a compound described herein, e.g., Gleevec (Vignari and Wang 2001).

Targeted therapy can also involve small peptides as “homing devices” which can bind to cell surface receptors or affected extracellular matrix surrounding the tumor. Radionuclides which are attached to these peptides (e.g., RGDs) eventually kill the cancer cell if the nuclide decays in the vicinity of the cell. An example of such therapy includes BEXXAR®.

Angiogenesis

Compounds and methods described herein may be used to treat or prevent a disease or disorder associated with angiogenesis. Diseases associated with angiogenesis include cancer, cardiovascular disease and macular degeneration.

Angiogenesis is the physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. Angiogenesis is a normal and vital process in growth and development, as well as in wound healing and in granulation tissue. However, it is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a dormant state to a malignant one. Angiogenesis may be a target for combating diseases characterized by either poor vascularisation or abnormal vasculature.

Application of specific compounds that may inhibit or induce the creation of new blood vessels in the body may help combat such diseases. The presence of blood vessels where there should be none may affect the mechanical properties of a tissue, increasing the likelihood of failure. The absence of blood vessels in a repairing or otherwise metabolically active tissue may inhibit repair or other essential functions. Several diseases, such as ischemic chronic wounds, are the result of failure or insufficient blood vessel formation and may be treated by a local expansion of blood vessels, thus bringing new nutrients to the site, facilitating repair. Other diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, may be created by a local expansion of blood vessels, interfering with normal physiological processes.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been demonstrated to be a major contributor to angiogenesis, increasing the number of capillaries in a given network. Upregulation of VEGF is a major component of the physiological response to exercise and its role in angiogenesis is suspected to be a possible treatment in vascular injuries. In vitro studies clearly demonstrate that VEGF is a potent stimulator of angiogenesis because, in the presence of this growth factor, plated endothelial cells will proliferate and migrate, eventually forming tube structures resembling capillaries.

Tumors induce blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) by secreting various growth factors (e.g., VEGF). Growth factors such as bFGF and VEGF can induce capillary growth into the tumor, which some researchers suspect supply required nutrients, allowing for tumor expansion.

Angiogenesis represents an excellent therapeutic target for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. It is a potent, physiological process that underlies the natural manner in which our bodies respond to a diminution of blood supply to vital organs, namely the production of new collateral vessels to overcome the ischemic insult.

Overexpression of VEGF causes increased permeability in blood vessels in addition to stimulating angiogenesis. In wet macular degeneration, VEGF causes proliferation of capillaries into the retina. Since the increase in angiogenesis also causes edema, blood and other retinal fluids leak into the retina, causing loss of vision.

Anti-angiogenic therapy can include kinase inhibitors targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) such as sunitinib, sorafenib, or monoclonal antibodies or receptor “decoys” to VEGF or VEGF receptor including bevacizumab or VEGF-Trap, or thalidomide or its analogs (lenalidomide, pomalidomide), or agents targeting non-VEGF angiogenic targets such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF), angiopoietins, or angiostatin or endostatin.

Epigenetics

Compounds and methods described herein may be used to treat or prevent a disease or disorder associated with epigenetics. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in phenotype or gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. One example of epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology is the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, stem cells become the various cell lines of the embryo which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, a single fertilized egg cell changes into the many cell types including neurons, muscle cells, epithelium, blood vessels etc. as it continues to divide. It does so by activating some genes while inhibiting others.

Epigenetic changes are preserved when cells divide. Most epigenetic changes only occur within the course of one individual organism's lifetime, but, if a mutation in the DNA has been caused in sperm or egg cell that results in fertilization, then some epigenetic changes are inherited from one generation to the next. Specific epigenetic processes include paramutation, bookmarking, imprinting, gene silencing, X chromosome inactivation, position effect, reprogramming, transvection, maternal effects, the progress of carcinogenesis, many effects of teratogens, regulation of histone modifications and heterochromatin, and technical limitations affecting parthenogenesis and cloning.

Exemplary diseases associated with epigenetics include ATR-syndrome, fragile X-syndrome, ICF syndrome, Angelman's syndrome, Prader-Wills syndrome, BWS, Rett syndrome, α-thalassaemia, cancer, leukemia, Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome and Coffin-Lowry syndrome.

The first human disease to be linked to epigenetics was cancer. Researchers found that diseased tissue from patients with colorectal cancer had less DNA methylation than normal tissue from the same patients. Because methylated genes are typically turned off, loss of DNA methylation can cause abnormally high gene activation by altering the arrangement of chromatin. On the other hand, too much methylation can undo the work of protective tumor suppressor genes.

DNA methylation occurs at CpG sites, and a majority of CpG cytosines are methylated in mammals. However, there are stretches of DNA near promoter regions that have higher concentrations of CpG sites (known as CpG islands) that are free of methylation in normal cells. These CpG islands become excessively methylated in cancer cells, thereby causing genes that should not be silenced to turn off. This abnormality is the trademark epigenetic change that occurs in tumors and happens early in the development of cancer. Hypermethylation of CpG islands can cause tumors by shutting off tumor-suppressor genes. In fact, these types of changes may be more common in human cancer than DNA sequence mutations.

Furthermore, although epigenetic changes do not alter the sequence of DNA, they can cause mutations. About half of the genes that cause familial or inherited forms of cancer are turned off by methylation. Most of these genes normally suppress tumor formation and help repair DNA, including 06-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT), MLH1 cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2B (CDKN2B), and RASSF1A. For example, hypermethylation of the promoter of MGMT causes the number of G-to-A mutations to increase.

Hypermethylation can also lead to instability of microsatellites, which are repeated sequences of DNA. Microsatellites are common in normal individuals, and they usually consist of repeats of the dinucleotide CA. Too much methylation of the promoter of the DNA repair gene MLH1 can make a microsatellite unstable and lengthen or shorten it. Microsatellite instability has been linked to many cancers, including colorectal, endometrial, ovarian, and gastric cancers.

Fragile X syndrome is the most frequently inherited mental disability, particularly in males. Both sexes can be affected by this condition, but because males only have one X chromosome, one fragile X will impact them more severely. Indeed, fragile X syndrome occurs in approximately 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females. People with this syndrome have severe intellectual disabilities, delayed verbal development, and “autistic-like” behavior.

Fragile X syndrome gets its name from the way the part of the X chromosome that contains the gene abnormality looks under a microscope; it usually appears as if it is hanging by a thread and easily breakable. The syndrome is caused by an abnormality in the FMR1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) gene. People who do not have fragile X syndrome have 6 to 50 repeats of the trinucleotide CGG in their FMR1 gene. However, individuals with over 200 repeats have a full mutation, and they usually show symptoms of the syndrome. Too many CGGs cause the CpG islands at the promoter region of the FMR1 gene to become methylated; normally, they are not. This methylation turns the gene off, stopping the FMR1 gene from producing an important protein called fragile X mental retardation protein. Loss of this specific protein causes fragile X syndrome. Although a lot of attention has been given to the CGG expansion mutation as the cause of fragile X, the epigenetic change associated with FMR1 methylation is the real syndrome culprit.

Fragile X syndrome is not the only disorder associated with mental retardation that involves epigenetic changes. Other such conditions include Rubenstein-Taybi, Coffin-Lowry, Prader-Willi, Angelman, Beckwith-Wiedemann, ATR-X, and Rett syndromes.

Epigenetic therapies include inhibitors of enzymes controlling epigenetic modifications, specifically DNA methyltransferases and histone deacetylases, which have shown promising anti-tumorigenic effects for some malignancies, as well as antisense oligonucleotides and siRNA.

Immunotherapy

In some embodiments, a compound described herein is administered with an immunotherapy. Cancer immunotherapy refers to a diverse set of therapeutic strategies designed to induce the patient's own immune system to fight the tumor. Contemporary methods for generating an immune response against tumors include intravesicular BCG immunotherapy for superficial bladder cancer, prostate cancer vaccine Provenge, and use of interferons and other cytokines to induce an immune response in renal cell carcinoma and melanoma patients.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation can be considered a form of immunotherapy, since the donor's immune cells will often attack the tumor in a graft-versus-tumor effect. In some embodiments, the immunotherapy agents can be used in combination with a compound described herein.

Hormonal Therapy

In some embodiments, a compound described herein is administered with a hormonal therapy. The growth of some cancers can be inhibited by providing or blocking certain hormones. Common examples of hormone-sensitive tumors include certain types of breast and prostate cancers, as well as certain types of leukemia which respond to certain retinoids/retinoic acids. Removing or blocking estrogen or testosterone is often an important additional treatment. In certain cancers, administration of hormone agonists, such as progestogens may be therapeutically beneficial. In some embodiments, the hormonal therapy agents can be used in combination with a compound described herein.

Hormonal therapy agents include the administration of hormone agonists or hormone antagonists and include retinoids/retinoic acid, compounds that inhibit estrogen or testosterone, as well as administration of progestogens.

Inflammation and Autoimmune Disease

The compounds and methods described herein may be used to treat or prevent a disease or disorder associated with inflammation, particularly in humans and other mammals. A compound described herein may be administered prior to the onset of, at, or after the initiation of inflammation. When used prophylactically, the compounds are preferably provided in advance of any inflammatory response or symptom. Administration of the compounds can prevent or attenuate inflammatory responses or symptoms. Exemplary inflammatory conditions include, for example, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, degenerative joint disease, spondouloarthropathies, other seronegative inflammatory arthridities, polymyalgia rheumatica, various vasculidities (e.g., giant cell arteritis, ANCA+ vasculitis), gouty arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, juvenile arthritis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, diabetes (e.g., insulin dependent diabetes mellitus or juvenile onset diabetes), menstrual cramps, cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn's disease, mucous colitis, ulcerative colitis, gastritis, esophagitis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, Alzheimer's disease, shock, ankylosing spondylitis, gastritis, conjunctivitis, pancreatis (acute or chronic), multiple organ injury syndrome (e.g., secondary to septicemia or trauma), myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, stroke, reperfusion injury (e.g., due to cardiopulmonary bypass or kidney dialysis), acute glomerulonephritis, thermal injury (i.e., sunburn), necrotizing enterocolitis, granulocyte transfusion associated syndrome, and/or Sjogren's syndrome. Exemplary inflammatory conditions of the skin include, for example, eczema, atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, urticaria, schleroderma, psoriasis, and dermatosis with acute inflammatory components.

In another embodiment, a compound or method described herein may be used to treat or prevent allergies and respiratory conditions, including asthma, bronchitis, pulmonary fibrosis, allergic rhinitis, oxygen toxicity, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and any chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The compounds may be used to treat chronic hepatitis infection, including hepatitis B and hepatitis C.

Additionally, a compound or method described herein may be used to treat autoimmune diseases and/or inflammation associated with autoimmune diseases, such as organ-tissue autoimmune diseases (e.g., Raynaud's syndrome), scleroderma, myasthenia gravis, transplant rejection, endotoxin shock, sepsis, psoriasis, eczema, dermatitis, multiple sclerosis, autoimmune thyroiditis, uveitis, systemic lupus erythematosis, Addison's disease, autoimmune polyglandular disease (also known as autoimmune polyglandular syndrome), and Grave's disease.

In a particular embodiment, the compounds described herein can be used to treat multiple sclerosis.

Combination Therapy

In certain embodiments, a compound described herein may be administered alone or in combination with other compounds useful for treating or preventing inflammation. Exemplary anti-inflammatory agents include, for example, steroids (e.g., Cortisol, cortisone, fludrocortisone, prednisone, 6[alpha]-methylprednisone, triamcinolone, betamethasone or dexamethasone), nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS (e.g., aspirin, acetaminophen, tolmetin, ibuprofen, mefenamic acid, piroxicam, nabumetone, rofecoxib, celecoxib, etodolac or nimesulide). In another embodiment, the other therapeutic agent is an antibiotic (e.g., vancomycin, penicillin, amoxicillin, ampicillin, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefixime, rifampinmetronidazole, doxycycline or streptomycin). In another embodiment, the other therapeutic agent is a PDE4 inhibitor (e.g., roflumilast or rolipram). In another embodiment, the other therapeutic agent is an antihistamine (e.g., cyclizine, hydroxyzine, promethazine or diphenhydramine). In another embodiment, the other therapeutic agent is an anti-malarial (e.g., artemisinin, artemether, artsunate, chloroquine phosphate, mefloquine hydrochloride, doxycycline hyclate, proguanil hydrochloride, atovaquone or halofantrine). In one embodiment, the other compound is drotrecogin alfa.

Further examples of anti-inflammatory agents include, for example, aceclofenac, acemetacin, e-acetamidocaproic acid, acetaminophen, acetaminosalol, acetanilide, acetylsalicylic acid, S-adenosylmethionine, alclofenac, alclometasone, alfentanil, algestone, allylprodine, alminoprofen, aloxiprin, alphaprodine, aluminum bis(acetylsalicylate), amcinonide, amfenac, aminochlorthenoxazin, 3-amino-4-hydroxybutyric acid, 2-amino-4-picoline, aminopropylon, aminopyrine, amixetrine, ammonium salicylate, ampiroxicam, amtolmetin guacil, anileridine, antipyrine, antrafenine, apazone, beclomethasone, bendazac, benorylate, benoxaprofen, benzpiperylon, benzydamine, benzylmorphine, bermoprofen, betamethasone, betamethasone-17-valerate, bezitramide, [alpha]-bisabolol, bromfenac, p-bromoacetanilide, 5-bromosalicylic acid acetate, bromosaligenin, bucetin, bucloxic acid, bucolome, budesonide, bufexamac, bumadizon, buprenorphine, butacetin, butibufen, butorphanol, carbamazepine, carbiphene, caiprofen, carsalam, chlorobutanol, chloroprednisone, chlorthenoxazin, choline salicylate, cinchophen, cinmetacin, ciramadol, clidanac, clobetasol, clocortolone, clometacin, clonitazene, clonixin, clopirac, cloprednol, clove, codeine, codeine methyl bromide, codeine phosphate, codeine sulfate, cortisone, cortivazol, cropropamide, crotethamide, cyclazocine, deflazacort, dehydrotestosterone, desomorphine, desonide, desoximetasone, dexamethasone, dexamethasone-21-isonicotinate, dexoxadrol, dextromoramide, dextropropoxyphene, deoxycorticosterone, dezocine, diampromide, diamorphone, diclofenac, difenamizole, difenpiramide, diflorasone, diflucortolone, diflunisal, difluprednate, dihydrocodeine, dihydrocodeinone enol acetate, dihydromorphine, dihydroxyaluminum acetylsalicylate, dimenoxadol, dimepheptanol, dimethylthiambutene, dioxaphetyl butyrate, dipipanone, diprocetyl, dipyrone, ditazol, droxicam, emorfazone, enfenamic acid, enoxolone, epirizole, eptazocine, etersalate, ethenzamide, ethoheptazine, ethoxazene, ethylmethylthiambutene, ethylmorphine, etodolac, etofenamate, etonitazene, eugenol, felbinac, fenbufen, fenclozic acid, fendosal, fenoprofen, fentanyl, fentiazac, fepradinol, feprazone, floctafenine, fluazacort, flucloronide, flufenamic acid, flumethasone, flunisolide, flunixin, flunoxaprofen, fluocinolone acetonide, fluocinonide, fluocinolone acetonide, fluocortin butyl, fluocoitolone, fluoresone, fluorometholone, fluperolone, flupirtine, fluprednidene, fluprednisolone, fluproquazone, flurandrenolide, flurbiprofen, fluticasone, formocortal, fosfosal, gentisic acid, glafenine, glucametacin, glycol salicylate, guaiazulene, halcinonide, halobetasol, halometasone, haloprednone, heroin, hydrocodone, hydro cortamate, hydrocortisone, hydrocortisone acetate, hydrocortisone succinate, hydrocortisone hemi succinate, hydrocortisone 21-lysinate, hydrocortisone cypionate, hydromorphone, hydroxypethidine, ibufenac, ibuprofen, ibuproxam, imidazole salicylate, indomethacin, indoprofen, isofezolac, isoflupredone, isoflupredone acetate, isoladol, isomethadone, isonixin, isoxepac, isoxicam, ketobemidone, ketoprofen, ketorolac, p-lactophenetide, lefetamine, levallorphan, levorphanol, levophenacyl-morphan, lofentanil, lonazolac, lornoxicam, loxoprofen, lysine acetylsalicylate, mazipredone, meclofenamic acid, medrysone, mefenamic acid, meloxicam, meperidine, meprednisone, meptazinol, mesalamine, metazocine, methadone, methotrimeprazine, methylprednisolone, methylprednisolone acetate, methylprednisolone sodium succinate, methylprednisolone suleptnate, metiazinic acid, metofoline, metopon, mofebutazone, mofezolac, mometasone, morazone, morphine, morphine hydrochloride, morphine sulfate, morpholine salicylate, myrophine, nabumetone, nalbuphine, nalorphine, 1-naphthyl salicylate, naproxen, narceine, nefopam, nicomorphine, nifenazone, niflumic acid, nimesulide, 5′-nitro-2′-propoxyacetanilide, norlevorphanol, normethadone, normorphine, norpipanone, olsalazine, opium, oxaceprol, oxametacine, oxaprozin, oxycodone, oxymorphone, oxyphenbutazone, papaveretum, paramethasone, paranyline, parsalmide, pentazocine, perisoxal, phenacetin, phenadoxone, phenazocine, phenazopyridine hydrochloride, phenocoll, phenoperidine, phenopyrazone, phenomorphan, phenyl acetylsalicylate, phenylbutazone, phenyl salicylate, phenyramidol, piketoprofen, piminodine, pipebuzone, piperylone, pirazolac, piritramide, piroxicam, pirprofen, pranoprofen, prednicarbate, prednisolone, prednisone, prednival, prednylidene, proglumetacin, proheptazine, promedol, propacetamol, properidine, propiram, propoxyphene, propyphenazone, proquazone, protizinic acid, proxazole, ramifenazone, remifentanil, rimazolium metilsulfate, salacetamide, salicin, salicylamide, salicylamide o-acetic acid, salicylic acid, salicylsulfuric acid, salsalate, salverine, simetride, sufentanil, sulfasalazine, sulindac, superoxide dismutase, suprofen, suxibuzone, talniflumate, tenidap, tenoxicam, terofenamate, tetrandrine, thiazolinobutazone, tiaprofenic acid, tiaramide, tilidine, tinoridine, tixocortol, tolfenamic acid, tolmetin, tramadol, triamcinolone, triamcinolone acetonide, tropesin, viminol, xenbucin, ximoprofen, zaltoprofen and zomepirac.

In one embodiment, a compound described herein may be administered with a selective COX-2 inhibitor for treating or preventing inflammation. Exemplary selective COX-2 inhibitors include, for example, deracoxib, parecoxib, celecoxib, valdecoxib, rofecoxib, etoricoxib, and lumiracoxib.

In some embodiments, a provided compound is administered in combination with an anthracycline or a Topo II inhibitor. In certain embodiments, a provided compound is administered in combination with Doxorubicin (Dox). In certain embodiments, a provided compound is administered in combination with a proteasome inhibitor such as bortezomib or carfilzomib.

Viral Infections

Compounds and methods described herein may be used to treat or prevent a disease or disorder associated with a viral infection, particularly in humans and other mammals. A compound described herein may be administered prior to the onset of, at, or after the initiation of viral infection. When used prophylactically, the compounds are preferably provided in advance of any viral infection or symptom thereof.

Exemplary viral diseases include acute febrile pharyngitis, pharyngoconjunctival fever, epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, infantile gastroenteritis, Coxsackie infections, infectious mononucleosis, Burkitt lymphoma, acute hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, primary HSV-1 infection (e.g., gingivostomatitis in children, tonsillitis and pharyngitis in adults, keratoconjunctivitis), latent HSV-1 infection (e.g., herpes labialis and cold sores), primary HSV-2 infection, latent HSV-2 infection, aseptic meningitis, infectious mononucleosis, Cytomegalic inclusion disease, Kaposi's sarcoma, multicentric Castleman disease, primary effusion lymphoma, AIDS, influenza, Reye syndrome, measles, postinfectious encephalomyelitis, Mumps, hyperplastic epithelial lesions (e.g., common, flat, plantar and anogenital warts, laryngeal papillomas, epidermodysplasia verruciformis), cervical carcinoma, squamous cell carcinomas, croup, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, common cold, Poliomyelitis, Rabies, influenza-like syndrome, severe bronchiolitis with pneumonia, German measles, congenital rubella, Varicella, and herpes zoster.

Exemplary viral influenza A strains include H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, H7N3, H7N9. A compound described herein can also be used to treat or prevent influenza B.

Exemplary viral pathogens include Adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, Dengue virus, Encephalitis Virus, Epstein-Barr virus, Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Herpes simplex virus type 1, Herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, Human herpesvirus type 8, Human immunodeficiency virus, Influenza virus, measles virus, Mumps virus, Human papillomavirus, Parainfluenza virus, Poliovirus, Rabies virus, Respiratory syncytial virus, Rubella virus, Varicella-zoster virus, West Nile virus, Dungee, and Yellow fever virus. Viral pathogens may also include viruses that cause resistant viral infections.

Antiviral drugs are a class of medications used specifically for treating viral infections. Antiviral action generally falls into one of three mechanisms: interference with the ability of a virus to infiltrate a target cell (e.g., amantadine, rimantadine and pleconaril), inhibition of the synthesis of virus (e.g., nucleoside analogues, e.g., acyclovir and zidovudine (AZT), and inhibition of the release of virus (e.g., zanamivir and oseltamivir).

Ophthalmology

Compounds and methods described herein may be used to treat or prevent an ophthamology disorder. Exemplary ophthamology disorders include macular edema (diabetic and nondiabetic macular edema), age related macular degeneration wet and dry forms, aged disciform macular degeneration, cystoid macular edema, palpebral edema, retina edema, diabetic retinopathy, chorioretinopathy, neovascular maculopathy, neovascular glaucoma, uveitis, iritis, retinal vasculitis, endophthalmitis, panophthalmitis, metastatic ophthalmia, choroiditis, retinal pigment epithelitis, conjunctivitis, cyclitis, scleritis, episcleritis, optic neuritis, retrobulbar optic neuritis, keratitis, blepharitis, exudative retinal detachment, corneal ulcer, conjunctival ulcer, chronic nummular keratitis, ophthalmic disease associated with hypoxia or ischemia, retinopathy of prematurity, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy, retinal angiomatous proliferation, retinal artery occlusion, retinal vein occlusion, Coats' disease, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, pulseless disease (Takayasu's disease), Eales disease, antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, leukemic retinopathy, blood hyperviscosity syndrome, macroglobulinemia, interferon-associated retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, radiation retinopathy, corneal epithelial stem cell deficiency and cataract.

Other ophthalmology disorders treatable using the compounds and methods described herein include proliferative vitreoretinopathy and chronic retinal detachment.

Inflammatory eye diseases are also treatable using the compounds and methods described herein.

Neurodegenerative Disease

Neurodegeneration is the umbrella term for the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, including death of neurons. Many neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes. As research progresses, many similarities appear which relate these diseases to one another on a sub-cellular level. Discovering these similarities offers hope for therapeutic advances that could ameliorate many diseases simultaneously. There are many parallels between different neurodegenerative disorders including atypical protein assemblies as well as induced cell death.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and certain subcortical regions. This loss results in gross atrophy of the affected regions, including degeneration in the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal cortex and cingulate gyms.

Huntington's disease causes astrogliosis and loss of medium spiny neurons. Areas of the brain are affected according to their structure and the types of neurons they contain, reducing in size as they cumulatively lose cells. The areas affected are mainly in the striatum, but also the frontal and temporal cortices. The striatum's subthalamic nuclei send control signals to the globus pallidus, which initiates and modulates motion. The weaker signals from subthalamic nuclei thus cause reduced initiation and modulation of movement, resulting in the characteristic movements of the disorder. Exemplary treatments for Huntington's disease include tetrabenazine, neuroleptics, benzodiazepines, amantadine, remacemide, valproic acid, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), mirtazapine and antipsychotics.

The mechanism by which the brain cells in Parkinson's are lost may consist of an abnormal accumulation of the protein alpha-synuclein bound to ubiquitin in the damaged cells. The alpha-synuclein-ubiquitin complex cannot be directed to the proteosome. This protein accumulation forms proteinaceous cytoplasmic inclusions called Lewy bodies. The latest research on pathogenesis of disease has shown that the death of dopaminergic neurons by alpha-synuclein is due to a defect in the machinery that transports proteins between two major cellular organelles—the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus. Certain proteins like Rab1 may reverse this defect caused by alpha-synuclein in animal models. Exemplary Parkinson's disease therapies include levodopa, dopamine agonists such as include bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil, cabergoline, apomorphine and lisuride, dopa decarboxylate inhibitors, MAO-B inhibitors such as selegilene and rasagilene, anticholinergics and amantadine.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS/Lou Gehrig's Disease) is a disease in which motor neurons are selectively targeted for degeneration. Exemplary ALS therapies include riluzole, baclofen, diazepam, trihexyphenidyl and amitriptyline.

Other exemplary neurodegenerative therapeutics include antisense oligonucleotides and stem cells.

Wound Healing

Wounds are a type of condition characterized by cell or tissue damage. Wound healing is a dynamic pathway that optimally leads to restoration of tissue integrity and function. The wound healing process consists of three overlapping phases. The first phase is an inflammatory phase, which is characterized by homeostasis, platelet aggregation and degranulation. Platelets as the first response, release multiple growth factors to recruit immune cells, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells. The inflammatory phase typically occurs over days 0-5. The second stage of wound healing is the proliferative phase during which macrophages and granulocytes invade the wound. Infiltrating fibroblasts begin to produce collagen. The principle characteristics of this phase are epithelialization, angiogenesis, granulation tissue formation and collagen production. The proliferative phase typically occurs over days 3-14. The third phase is the remodeling phase where matrix formation occurs. The fibroblasts, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells continue to produce collagen and collagenase as well as matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) for remodeling. Collagen crosslinking takes place and the wound undergoes contraction. The remodeling phase typically occurs from day 7 to one year.

Compounds and compositions described herein can be used for promoting wound healing (e.g., promoting or accelerating wound closure and/or wound healing, mitigating scar fibrosis of the tissue of and/or around the wound, inhibiting apoptosis of cells surrounding or proximate to the wound). Thus, in certain embodiments, the present invention provides a method for promoting wound healing in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound (e.g., a CRM1 inhibitor), or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or composition thereof. The method need not achieve complete healing or closure of the wound; it is sufficient for the method to promote any degree of wound closure. In this respect, the method can be employed alone or as an adjunct to other methods for healing wounded tissue.

The compounds and compositions described herein can be used to treat wounds during the inflammatory (or early) phase, during the proliferative (or middle) wound healing phase, and/or during the remodeling (or late) wound healing phase.

In some embodiments, the subject in need of wound healing is a human or an animal, for example, a dog, a cat, a horse, a pig, or a rodent, such as a mouse.

In some embodiments, the compounds and compositions described herein useful for wound healing are administered topically, for example, proximate to the wound site, or systemically.

More specifically, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound or composition described herein can be administered (optionally in combination with other agents) to the wound site by coating the wound or applying a bandage, packing material, stitches, etc., that are coated or treated with the compound or composition described herein. As such, the compounds and compositions described herein can be formulated for topical administration to treat surface wounds. Topical formulations include those for delivery via the mouth (buccal) and to the skin such that a layer of skin (i.e., the epidermis, dermis, and/or subcutaneous layer) is contacted with the compound or composition described herein. Topical delivery systems may be used to administer topical formulations of the compounds and compositions described herein.

Alternatively, the compounds and compositions described herein can be administered at or near the wound site by, for example, injection of a solution, injection of an extended release formulation, or introduction of a biodegradable implant comprising the compound or composition described herein.

The compounds and compositions described herein can be used to treat acute wounds or chronic wounds. A chronic wound results when the normal reparative process is interrupted. Chronic wounds can develop from acute injuries as a result of unrecognized persistent infections or inadequate primary treatment. In most cases however, chronic lesions are the end stage of progressive tissue breakdown owing to venous, arterial, or metabolic vascular disease, pressure sores, radiation damage, or tumors.

In chronic wounds, healing does not occur for a variety of reasons, including improper circulation in diabetic ulcers, significant necrosis, such as in burns, and infections. In these chronic wounds, viability or the recovery phase is often the rate-limiting step. The cells are no longer viable and, thus, initial recovery phase is prolonged by unfavorable wound bed environment.

Chronic wounds include, but are not limited to the following: chronic ischemic skin lesions; scleroderma ulcers; arterial ulcers; diabetic foot ulcers; pressure ulcers; venous ulcers; non-healing lower extremity wounds; ulcers due to inflammatory conditions; and/or long-standing wounds. Other examples of chronic wounds include chronic ulcers, diabetic wounds, wounds caused by diabetic neuropathy, venous insufficiencies, and arterial insufficiencies, and pressure wounds and cold and warm burns. Yet other examples of chronic wounds include chronic ulcers, diabetic wounds, wounds caused by diabetic neuropathy, venous insufficiencies, arterial insufficiencies, and pressure wounds.

Acute wounds include, but are not limited to, post-surgical wounds, lacerations, hemorrhoids and fissures.

In a particular embodiment, the compounds and compositions described herein can be used for diabetic wound healing or accelerating healing of leg and foot ulcers secondary to diabetes or ischemia in a subject.

In one embodiment, the wound is a surface wound. In another embodiment, the wound is a surgical wound (e.g., abdominal or gastrointestinal surgical wound). In a further embodiment, the wound is a burn. In yet another embodiment, the wound is the result of radiation exposure.

The compounds and compositions described herein can also be used for diabetic wound healing, gastrointestinal wound healing, or healing of an adhesion due, for example, to an operation.

The compounds and compositions described herein can also be used to heal wounds that are secondary to another disease. For example, in inflammatory skin diseases, such as psoriasis and dermatitis, there are numerous incidents of skin lesions that are secondary to the disease, and are caused by deep cracking of the skin, or scratching of the skin. The compounds and compositions described herein can be used to heal wounds that are secondary to these diseases, for example, inflammatory skin diseases, such as psoriasis and dermatitis.

In a further embodiment, the wound is an internal wound. In a specific aspect, the internal wound is a chronic wound. In another specific aspect, the wound is a vascular wound. In yet another specific aspect, the internal wound is an ulcer. Examples of internal wounds include, but are not limited to, fistulas and internal wounds associated with cosmetic surgery, internal indications, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, internal surgical sutures and skeletal fixation. Other examples of internal wounds include, but are not limited to, fistulas and internal wounds associated with cosmetic surgery, internal indications, internal surgical sutures and skeletal fixation.

Examples of wounds include, but are not limited to, abrasions, avulsions, blowing wounds (i.e., open pneumothorax), burn wounds, contusions, gunshot wounds, incised wounds, open wounds, penetrating wounds, perforating wounds, puncture wounds, séton wounds, stab wounds, surgical wounds, subcutaneous wounds, diabetic lesions, or tangential wounds. Additional examples of wounds that can be treated by the compounds and compositions described herein include acute conditions or wounds, such as thermal burns, chemical burns, radiation burns, burns caused by excess exposure to ultraviolet radiation (e.g., sunburn); damage to bodily tissues, such as the perineum as a result of labor and childbirth; injuries sustained during medical procedures, such as episiotomies; trauma-induced injuries including cuts, incisions, excoriations; injuries sustained from accidents; post-surgical injuries, as well as chronic conditions, such as pressure sores, bedsores, conditions related to diabetes and poor circulation, and all types of acne. In addition, the wound can include dermatitis, such as impetigo, intertrigo, folliculitis and eczema, wounds following dental surgery; periodontal disease; wounds following trauma; and tumor-associated wounds. Yet other examples of wounds include animal bites, arterial disease, insect stings and bites, bone infections, compromised skin/muscle grafts, gangrene, skin tears or lacerations, skin aging, surgical incisions, including slow or non-healing surgical wounds, intracerebral hemorrhage, aneurysm, dermal asthenia, and post-operation infections.

In preferred embodiments, the wound is selected from the group consisting of a burn wound, an incised wound, an open wound, a surgical or post surgical wound, a diabetic lesion, a thermal burn, a chemical burn, a radiation burn, a pressure sore, a bedsore, and a condition related to diabetes or poor circulation. In more preferred embodiments, the wound is selected from the group consisting of an incised wound, an open wound, a surgical or post surgical wound, a diabetic lesion, a pressure sore, a bedsore, and a condition or wound related to diabetes or poor circulation.

In some embodiments, the wound is selected from the group consisting of a non-radiation burn wound, an incised wound, an open wound, a surgical or post-surgical wound, a diabetic lesion, a thermal burn, a chemical burn, a pressure sore, a bedsore, and a condition related to diabetes or poor circulation. In some embodiments, the wound is selected from the group consisting of an incised wound, an open wound, a surgical or post-surgical wound, a diabetic lesion, a pressure sore, a bedsore, and a condition related to diabetes or poor circulation.

The present disclosure also relates to methods and compositions of reducing scar formation during wound healing in a subject. The compounds and compositions described herein can be administered directly to the wound or to cells proximate the wound at an amount effective to reduce scar formation in and/or around the wound. Thus, in some embodiments, a method of reducing scar formation during wound healing in a subject is provided, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound described herein (e.g., a CRM1 inhibitor), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

The wound can include any injury to any portion of the body of a subject. According to embodiments, methods are provided to ameliorate, reduce, or decrease the formation of scars in a subject that has suffered a burn injury. According to preferred embodiments, methods are provided to treat, reduce the occurrence of, or reduce the probability of developing hypertrophic scars in a subject that has suffered an acute or chronic wound or injury.

Other Disorders

Compounds and compositions described herein may also be used to treat disorders of abnormal tissue growth and fibrosis including dilative cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, restrictive cardiomyopathy, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic fibrosis, glomerulonephritis, and other renal disorders.

Combination Radiation Therapy

Compounds and compositions described herein are useful as radiosensitizers.

Therefore, compounds and compositions described herein can be administered in combination with radiation therapy. Radiation therapy is the medical use of high-energy radiation (e.g., X-rays, gamma rays, charged particles) to shrink tumors and kill malignant cells, and is generally used as part of cancer treatment. Radiation therapy kills malignant cells by damaging their DNA.

Radiation therapy can be delivered to a patient in several ways. For example, radiation can be delivered from an external source, such as a machine outside the patient's body, as in external beam radiation therapy. External beam radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer uses a radiation source that is external to the patient, typically either a radioisotope, such as ⁶⁰Co, ¹³⁷Cs, or a high energy x-ray source, such as a linear accelerator. The external source produces a collimated beam directed into the patient to the tumor site. External-source radiation therapy avoids some of the problems of internal-source radiation therapy, but it undesirably and necessarily irradiates a significant volume of non-tumorous or healthy tissue in the path of the radiation beam along with the tumorous tissue.

The adverse effect of irradiating of healthy tissue can be reduced, while maintaining a given dose of radiation in the tumorous tissue, by projecting the external radiation beam into the patient at a variety of “gantry” angles with the beams converging on the tumor site. The particular volume elements of healthy tissue, along the path of the radiation beam, change, reducing the total dose to each such element of healthy tissue during the entire treatment.

The irradiation of healthy tissue also can be reduced by tightly collimating the radiation beam to the general cross section of the tumor taken perpendicular to the axis of the radiation beam. Numerous systems exist for producing such a circumferential collimation, some of which use multiple sliding shutters which, piecewise, can generate a radio-opaque mask of arbitrary outline.

For administration of external beam radiation, the amount can be at least about 1 Gray (Gy) fractions at least once every other day to a treatment volume. In a particular embodiment, the radiation is administered in at least about 2 Gray (Gy) fractions at least once per day to a treatment volume. In another particular embodiment, the radiation is administered in at least about 2 Gray (Gy) fractions at least once per day to a treatment volume for five consecutive days per week. In another particular embodiment, radiation is administered in 10 Gy fractions every other day, three times per week to a treatment volume. In another particular embodiment, a total of at least about 20 Gy is administered to a patient in need thereof. In another particular embodiment, at least about 30 Gy is administered to a patient in need thereof. In another particular embodiment, at least about 40 Gy is administered to a patient in need thereof.

Typically, the patient receives external beam therapy four or five times a week. An entire course of treatment usually lasts from one to seven weeks depending on the type of cancer and the goal of treatment. For example, a patient can receive a dose of 2 Gy/day over 30 days.

Internal radiation therapy is localized radiation therapy, meaning the radiation source is placed at the site of the tumor or affected area. Internal radiation therapy can be delivered by placing a radiation source inside or next to the area requiring treatment. Internal radiation therapy is also called brachytherapy. Brachytherapy includes intercavitary treatment and interstitial treatment. In intracavitary treatment, containers that hold radioactive sources are put in or near the tumor. The sources are put into the body cavities. In interstitial treatment, the radioactive sources alone are put into the tumor. These radioactive sources can stay in the patient permanently. Typically, the radioactive sources are removed from the patient after several days. The radioactive sources are in containers.

There are a number of methods for administration of a radiopharmaceutical agent. For example, the radiopharmaceutical agent can be administered by targeted delivery or by systemic delivery of targeted radioactive conjugates, such as a radiolabeled antibody, a radiolabeled peptide and a liposome delivery system. In one particular embodiment of targeted delivery, the radiolabelled pharmaceutical agent can be a radiolabelled antibody. See, for example, Ballangrud A. M., et al. Cancer Res., 2001; 61:2008-2014 and Goldenber, D. M. J. Nucl. Med., 2002; 43(5):693-713, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.

In another particular embodiment of targeted delivery, the radiopharmaceutical agent can be administered in the form of liposome delivery systems, such as small unilamellar vesicles, large unilamellar vesicles and multilamellar vesicles. Liposomes can be formed from a variety of phospholipids, such as cholesterol, stearylamine or phosphatidylcholines. See, for example, Emfietzoglou D, Kostarelos K, Sgouros G. An analytical dosimetry study for the use of radionuclide-liposome conjugates in internal radiotherapy. J Nucl Med 2001; 42:499-504, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.

In yet another particular embodiment of targeted delivery, the radiolabeled pharmaceutical agent can be a radiolabeled peptide. See, for example, Weiner R E, Thakur M L. Radiolabeled peptides in the diagnosis and therapy of oncological diseases. Appl Radiat Isot 2002 November; 57(5):749-63, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.

In addition to targeted delivery, bracytherapy can be used to deliver the radiopharmaceutical agent to the target site. Brachytherapy is a technique that puts the radiation sources as close as possible to the tumor site. Often the source is inserted directly into the tumor. The radioactive sources can be in the form of wires, seeds or rods. Generally, cesium, iridium or iodine are used.

Systemic radiation therapy is another type of radiation therapy and involves the use of radioactive substances in the blood. Systemic radiation therapy is a form of targeted therapy. In systemic radiation therapy, a patient typically ingests or receives an injection of a radioactive substance, such as radioactive iodine or a radioactive substance bound to a monoclonal antibody.

A “radiopharmaceutical agent,” as defined herein, refers to a pharmaceutical agent which contains at least one radiation-emitting radioisotope. Radiopharmaceutical agents are routinely used in nuclear medicine for the diagnosis and/or therapy of various diseases. The radiolabelled pharmaceutical agent, for example, a radiolabelled antibody, contains a radioisotope (RI) which serves as the radiation source. As contemplated herein, the term “radioisotope” includes metallic and non-metallic radioisotopes. The radioisotope is chosen based on the medical application of the radiolabeled pharmaceutical agents. When the radioisotope is a metallic radioisotope, a chelator is typically employed to bind the metallic radioisotope to the rest of the molecule. When the radioisotope is a non-metallic radioisotope, the non-metallic radioisotope is typically linked directly, or via a linker, to the rest of the molecule.

As used herein, a “metallic radioisotope” is any suitable metallic radioisotope useful in a therapeutic or diagnostic procedure in vivo or in vitro. Suitable metallic radioisotopes include, but are not limited to: Actinium-225, Antimony-124, Antimony-125, Arsenic-74, Barium-103, Barium-140, Beryllium-7, Bismuth-206, Bismuth-207, Bismuth212, Bismuth213, Cadmium-109, Cadmium-115m, Calcium-45, Cerium-139, Cerium-141, Cerium-144, Cesium-137, Chromium-51, Cobalt-55, Cobalt-56, Cobalt-57, Cobalt-58, Cobalt-60, Cobalt-64, Copper-60, Copper-62, Copper-64, Copper-67, Erbium-169, Europium-152, Gallium-64, Gallium-67, Gallium-68, Gadolinium153, Gadolinium-157 Gold-195, Gold-199, Hafnium-175, Hafnium-175-181, Holmium-166, Indium-110, Indium-111, Iridium-192, Iron 55, Iron-59, Krypton85, Lead-203, Lead-210, Lutetium-177, Manganese-54, Mercury-197, Mercury203, Molybdenum-99, Neodymium-147, Neptunium-237, Nickel-63, Niobium95, Osmium-185+191, Palladium-103, Palladium-109, Platinum-195m, Praseodymium-143, Promethium-147, Promethium-149, Protactinium-233, Radium-226, Rhenium-186, Rhenium-188, Rubidium-86, Ruthenium-97, Ruthenium-103, Ruthenium-105, Ruthenium-106, Samarium-153, Scandium-44, Scandium-46, Scandium-47, Selenium-75, Silver-110m, Silver-111, Sodium-22, Strontium-85, Strontium-89, Strontium-90, Sulfur-35, Tantalum-182, Technetium-99m, Tellurium-125, Tellurium-132, Thallium-204, Thorium-228, Thorium-232, Thallium-170, Tin-113, Tin-114, Tin-117m, Titanium-44, Tungsten-185, Vanadium-48, Vanadium-49, Ytterbium-169, Yttrium-86, Yttrium-88, Yttrium-90, Yttrium-91, Zinc-65, Zirconium-89, and Zirconium-95.

As used herein, a “non-metallic radioisotope” is any suitable nonmetallic radioisotope (non-metallic radioisotope) useful in a therapeutic or diagnostic procedure in vivo or in vitro. Suitable non-metallic radioisotopes include, but are not limited to: Iodine-131, Iodine-125, Iodine-123, Phosphorus-32, Astatine-211, Fluorine-18, Carbon-11, Oxygen-15, Bromine-76, and Nitrogen-13.

Identifying the most appropriate isotope for radiotherapy requires weighing a variety of factors. These include tumor uptake and retention, blood clearance, rate of radiation delivery, half-life and specific activity of the radioisotope, and the feasibility of large-scale production of the radioisotope in an economical fashion. The key point for a therapeutic radiopharmaceutical is to deliver the requisite amount of radiation dose to the tumor cells and to achieve a cytotoxic or tumoricidal effect while not causing unmanageable side-effects.

It is preferred that the physical half-life of the therapeutic radioisotope be similar to the biological half-life of the radiopharmaceutical at the tumor site. For example, if the half-life of the radioisotope is too short, much of the decay will have occurred before the radiopharmaceutical has reached maximum target/background ratio. On the other hand, too long a half-life could cause unnecessary radiation dose to normal tissues. Ideally, the radioisotope should have a long enough half-life to attain a minimum dose rate and to irradiate all the cells during the most radiation sensitive phases of the cell cycle. In addition, the half-life of a radioisotope has to be long enough to allow adequate time for manufacturing, release, and transportation.

Other practical considerations in selecting a radioisotope for a given application in tumor therapy are availability and quality. The purity has to be sufficient and reproducible, as trace amounts of impurities can affect the radiolabeling and radiochemical purity of the radiopharmaceutical.

The target receptor sites in tumors are typically limited in number. As such, it is preferred that the radioisotope have high specific activity. The specific activity depends primarily on the production method. Trace metal contaminants must be minimized as they often compete with the radioisotope for the chelator and their metal complexes compete for receptor binding with the radiolabeled chelated agent.

The type of radiation that is suitable for use in the methods of the present invention can vary. For example, radiation can be electromagnetic or particulate in nature. Electromagnetic radiation useful in the practice of this invention includes, but is not limited to, x-rays and gamma rays. Particulate radiation useful in the practice of this invention includes, but is not limited to, electron beams (beta particles), protons beams, neutron beams, alpha particles, and negative pi mesons. The radiation can be delivered using conventional radiological treatment apparatus and methods, and by intraoperative and stereotactic methods. Additional discussion regarding radiation treatments suitable for use in the practice of this invention can be found throughout Steven A. Leibel et al., Textbook of Radiation Oncology (1998) (publ. W. B. Saunders Company), and particularly in Chapters 13 and 14. Radiation can also be delivered by other methods such as targeted delivery, for example by radioactive “seeds,” or by systemic delivery of targeted radioactive conjugates. J. Padawer et al., Combined Treatment with Radioestradiol lucanthone in Mouse C3HBA Mammary Adenocarcinoma and with Estradiol lucanthone in an Estrogen Bioassay, Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 7:347-357 (1981). Other radiation delivery methods can be used in the practice of this invention.

For tumor therapy, both a and β-particle emitters have been investigated. Alpha particles are particularly good cytotoxic agents because they dissipate a large amount of energy within one or two cell diameters. The β-particle emitters have relatively long penetration range (2-12 mm in the tissue) depending on the energy level. The long-range penetration is particularly important for solid tumors that have heterogeneous blood flow and/or receptor expression. The β-particle emitters yield a more homogeneous dose distribution even when they are heterogeneously distributed within the target tissue.

In a particular embodiment, therapeutically effective amounts of the compounds and compositions described herein are administered in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of radiation therapy to treat cancer (e.g., lung cancer, such as non-small cell lung cancer). The amount of radiation necessary can be determined by one of skill in the art based on known doses for a particular type of cancer. See, for example, Cancer Medicine 5^(th) ed., Edited by R. C. Bast et al., July 2000, BC Decker.

The above disclosure generally describes the present invention. A more complete understanding can be obtained by reference to the following specific Examples. These Examples are described solely for purposes of illustration and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Changes in form and substitution of equivalents are contemplated as circumstances may suggest or render expedient. Although specific terms have been employed herein, such terms are intended in a descriptive sense and not for purposes of limitation.

EXEMPLIFICATION Abbreviations

aq. Aqueous

DMF N,N-Dimethylformamide DMSO Dimethylsulfoxide

eq. equivalent(s)

Et Ethyl

EtOAc Ethyl acetate g gram h hour(s) HPLC High performance liquid chromatography

LCMS Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry

Me methyl mg milligram(s) min minute mL milliliters NMM N-methyl morpholine NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance Ph phenyl

THF Tetrahydrofuran

t_(R) Retention time

Throughout the following description of such processes it is to be understood that, where appropriate, suitable protecting groups will be added to, and subsequently removed from, the various reactants and intermediates in a manner that will be readily understood by one skilled in the art of organic synthesis. Conventional procedures for using such protecting groups as well as examples of suitable protecting groups are described, for example, in “Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis”, T. W. Green, P. G. M. Wuts, Wiley-Interscience, New York, (1999). It is also to be understood that a transformation of a group or substituent into another group or substituent by chemical manipulation can be conducted on any intermediate or final product on the synthetic path toward the final product, in which the possible type of transformation is limited only by inherent incompatibility of other functionalities carried by the molecule at that stage to the conditions or reagents employed in the transformation. Such inherent incompatibilities, and ways to circumvent them by carrying out appropriate transformations and synthetic steps in a suitable order, will be readily understood to the one skilled in the art of organic synthesis. Examples of transformations are given below, and it is to be understood that the described transformations are not limited only to the generic groups or substituents for which the transformations are exemplified. References and descriptions on other suitable transformations are given in “Comprehensive Organic Transformations—A Guide to Functional Group Preparations” R. C. Larock, VHC Publishers, Inc. (1989). References and descriptions of other suitable reactions are described in textbooks of organic chemistry, for example, “Advanced Organic Chemistry”, March, 4th ed. McGraw Hill (1992) or, “Organic Synthesis”, Smith, McGraw Hill, (1994). Techniques for purification of intermediates and final products include for example, straight and reversed phase chromatography on column or rotating plate, recrystallization, distillation and liquid-liquid or solid-liquid extraction, which will be readily understood by the one skilled in the art. The definitions of substituents and groups are as in formula I except where defined differently. The term “room temperature” and “ambient temperature” shall mean, unless otherwise specified, a temperature between 16 and 25° C. The term “reflux” shall mean, unless otherwise stated, in reference to an employed solvent a temperature at or above the boiling point of named solvent.

Synthetic Procedures Example 1. Preparation of (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(N-cyclopropylsulfamoyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 100)

Compounds of the invention were prepared according to the methods shown in the following scheme. Intermediate 1 was prepared according to procedures found in WO201405393.

A solution of (Z)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-bromoacrylamide (120 mg, 0.28 mmol), (4-(N-cyclopropylsulfammoyl)phenyl)boronic acid (89 mg, 0.37 mmol), potassium acetate (69 mg, 0.7 mmol), [1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene]palladium-(II) chloride (45 mg, 0.06 mmol) in dioxane (7 mL) and water (1 mL) was degassed and then heated at 80° C. for 1.5 h. The reaction mixture was poured into 10 mL of water and extracted with ethyl acetate (10 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with brine, dried over anhydrous Na₂SO₄ and concentrated under reduced pressure to give crude product, which was purified prep-HPLC to afford (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-cyanophenyl)acrylamide. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 9.00 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 8.22 (s, 1H), 8.04 (s, 2H), 7.90 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (s, 1H), 7.47 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (s, 1H). LCMS: m/z 452.0 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.93 min. The following examples were prepared in a similar fashion as Example 1 using the indicated reagents.

Example 2. Preparation of (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 101)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.81 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 1H), 8.19 (d, J=3 Hz, 3H), 7.92 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (s, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.34 (s, 1H), 2.84-2.77 (m, 1H), 1.18-1.13 (m, 2H), 1.07-1.01 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 530.7 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.93 min.

Example 3. Preparation of (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(methylsulfonamido)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 102)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 9.78 (s, 1H), 8.64 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 3H), 8.12 (s, 1H), 7.59 (s, 1H), 7.44-7.36 (m, 1H), 7.28 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.08 (s, 2H), 7.01 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 2.88 (s, 3H). LCMS: m/z 519.7 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.88 min.

Example 4. Preparation of (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 103)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, CD₃OD) δ 8.54 (s, 1H), 8.33-8.30 (m, 3H), 8.10 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 8.03 (s, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 3.20 (s, 3H). LCMS: m/z 505.0 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.67 min.

Example 5. Preparation of (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(N,N-dimethylsulfamoyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 104)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.96 (s, 1H), 8.55 (s, 2H), 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.05 (s, 1H), 7.95 (s, 1H), 7.90-7.80 (m, 5H), 2.65 (s, 6H). LCMS: m/z 534.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.92 min.

Compounds 105-128 were synthesized from Intermediate 1, utilizing the appropriate boronates/boronic acids and the reagents shown in Examples 1-5:

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(4,4-difluoropiperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 105)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.81 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 2H), 8.18 (s, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 3.14-3.09 (m, 4H), 2.13-2.00 (m, 4H).

LCMS: m/z 610.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.77 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(4-(trifluoromethyl)piperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 106)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.79 (s, 1H), 8.22-8.17 (m, 4H), 7.77 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.68 (s, 1H), 7.56 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.20 (s, 1H), 3.79-3.71 (m, 2H), 2.38-2.24 (m, 3H), 1.88-1.78 (m, 2H), 1.55-1.39 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 642.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.04 min.

(E)-2-(4-(azetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)acrylamide (Compound 107)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, CD₃OD) δ 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.23 (s, 2H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 7.86-7.83 (m, 2H), 7.58-7.54 (m, 2H), 3.74-3.68 (m, 4H), 2.00-1.91 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 546.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.91 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(morpholinosulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 108)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.82 (s, 1H), 8.26-8.15 (m, 4H), 7.75 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (s, 1H), 3.66-3.61 (m, 4H), 2.95-2.88 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 576.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.72 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(piperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 109)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.77 (s, 1H), 8.22-8.17 (m, 4H), 7.74 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.53 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 2.96-2.86 (m, 4H), 1.59-1.48 (m, 4H), 1.37-1.28 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 574.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.75 min.

Synthesis of (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(3-fluoroazetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 110)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.80 (s, 1H), 8.24-8.15 (m, 4H), 7.87 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.60 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.20 (s, 1H), 5.24-5.07 (m, 1H), 4.13-4.01 (m, 2H), 3.85-3.73 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 564.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.91 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(3,3-difluoroazetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 111)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.81 (s, 1H), 8.26-8.14 (m, 4H), 7.93 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.62 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (s, 1H), 4.31-4.22 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 582.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.95 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(pyrrolidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 112)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.74 (s, 1H), 8.22 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 2H), 8.18 (s, 1H), 7.82 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.52 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (s, 1H), 3.17-3.11 (m, 4H), 1.65-1.59 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 560.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.00 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(3,3-difluoropyrrolidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 113)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.77 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 2H), 8.18 (s, 2H), 7.87 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.56 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (s, 1H), 3.60-3.53 (m, 2H), 3.41-3.37 (m, 2H), 2.36-2.29 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 596.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.01 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(4-fluoropiperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 114)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.78 (s, 1H), 8.22-8.17 (m, 4H), 7.77 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.54 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (s, 1H), 4.80-4.63 (m, 1H), 3.09-2.93 (m, 4H), 1.97-1.73 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 592.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.98 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(4-methylpiperazin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 115)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.78 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 2H), 8.18 (s, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.53 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (s, 1H), 2.95-2.87 (m, 4H), 2.38-2.32 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H). LCMS: m/z 589.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.93 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(2,2-dimethylmorpholinosulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 116)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.79 (s, 1H), 8.22 (s, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H), 8.17 (s, 2H), 7.73 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.54 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (s, 1H), 3.70-3.64 (m, 2H), 2.89-2.83 (m, 2H), 2.70 (s, 2H), 1.16 (s, 6H). LCMS: m/z 604.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.98 min.

(R,E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(3-fluoropyrrolidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 117)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.67 (s, 1H), 8.23-8.21 (m, 3H), 8.18 (s, 1H), 7.84 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.54 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (s, 1H), 5.26-5.10 (m, 1H), 3.54-3.21 (m, 4H), 2.05-1.94 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 578.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.97 min.

(E)-2-(4-(1,4-oxazepan-4-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)acrylamide (Compound 118)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.76 (s, 1H), 8.23-8.16 (m, 4H), 7.81 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.51 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 3.70-3.62 (m, 4H), 3.34-3.29 (m, 4H), 1.87-1.76 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 590.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.11 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(morpholinosulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 119)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.98 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.18 (s, 1H), 8.07 (s, 2H), 7.80-7.66 (m, 3H), 7.63 (s, 1H), 7.49 (s, 1H), 7.23 (s, 1H), 3.40-3.36 (m, 4H), 2.73-2.66 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 576.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.95 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(4-fluoropiperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 120)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.95 (s, 1H), 8.26 (s, 1H), 8.19 (s, 1H), 8.08 (s, 2H), 7.81-7.65 (m, 3H), 7.60 (s, 1H), 7.52 (s, 1H), 7.23 (s, 1H), 4.47-4.30 (m, 1H), 2.99-2.91 (m, 2H), 2.77-2.68 (m, 2H), 1.80-1.54 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 592.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.01 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(3,3-difluoroazetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 121)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.94 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H), 8.10 (s, 2H), 7.94 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.80-7.70 (m, 3H), 7.63 (s, 1H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 4.16 (t, J=13 Hz, 4H). LCMS: m/z 582.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.98 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(4,4-difluoropiperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 122)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.98 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H), 8.06 (s, 2H), 7.81 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.69 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (s, 1H), 7.55 (s, 1H), 7.24 (s, 1H), 2.97-2.89 (m, 4H), 1.93-1.82 (m, 4H). LCMS: m/z 610.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.00 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(3-fluoroazetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 123)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.95 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 8.19 (s, 1H), 8.09 (s, 2H), 7.88 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.77 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.63 (s, 1H), 7.24 (s, 1H), 5.10-4.93 (m, 1H), 4.02-3.92 (m, 2H), 3.71-3.60 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 564.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.97 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 124)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.26 (s, 1H), 8.10 (s, 2H), 8.07 (s, 1H), 7.86 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (s, 1H), 7.70 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (t, J=4 Hz, 2H), 5.61 (s, 1H), 5.39 (s, 1H), 2.93-2.72 (m, 4H), 2.29-2.13 (m, 4H), 1.99 (s, 3H). LCMS: m/z 589.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.99 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 125)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.93 (s, 1H), 8.24 (s, 1H), 8.23 (s, 1H), 8.09 (s, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.62 (s, 1H), 7.57 (s, 1H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 2.98 (t, J=7 Hz, 4H), 1.36 (t, J=7 Hz, 4H). LCMS: m/z 560.2 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.80 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)piperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 126)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.96 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 8.23 (s, 1H), 8.09 (s, 2H), 7.77 (d, J=5 Hz, 2H), 7.73-7.68 (m, 1H), 7.63 (s, 1H), 7.50 (s, 1H), 7.19 (s, 1H), 3.60 (d, J=11 Hz, 2H), 1.97-1.89 (m, 2H), 1.57-1.50 (m, 2H), 1.39-1.30 (m, 3H). LCMS: m/z 642.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=2.10 min.

(E)-2-(3-(azetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)acrylamide (Compound 127)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.98 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.22 (s, 1H), 8.10 (s, 2H), 7.83 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.64 (s, 1H), 7.58 (s, 1H), 7.28 (s, 1H), 3.53 (t, J=8 Hz, 4H), 1.71-1.60 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 546.0 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.75 min.

(E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(3,3-difluoropyrrolidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide (Compound 128)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.94 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H), 8.08 (s, 2H), 7.87 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.71-7.66 (m, 2H), 7.64 (s, 1H), 7.17 (s, 1H), 3.43 (t, J=13 Hz, 2H), 3.27 (t, J=7 Hz, 2H), 2.20-2.06 (m, 2H). LCMS: m/z 596.1 [M+H]⁺, t_(R)=1.77 min.

Example 6. Assays

Certain compounds of the invention were tested in various assays.

Inhibition of Nuclear Export—Rev-GFP Assay

The inhibition of CRM1 mediated nuclear export by compounds of the invention can be determined in a RevGFP assay. Rev is a protein from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and contains a nuclear export signal (NES) in its C-terminal domain and a nuclear localization signal (NLS) in its N-terminal domain. Nuclear export of Rev protein is dependent on the classical NES/CRM1 pathway (Neville et al, 1997, Kau et al, 2003). Nuclear and nucleolar accumulation of Rev is observed in cells treated with specific inhibitors of CRM1, such as LMB (Kau et al, 2003).

In this assay, U2OS-RevGFP cells are seeded onto clear-bottom, black, 384-well plates the day before the experiment. Compounds are serially diluted 1:2 starting from 40 μM in a separate 384-well plate in DMEM, and then transferred onto cells. Cells are incubated with compound for approximately 1 hour before fixation with 3.7% formaldehyde and nuclei staining with Hoechst 33258. The amount of GFP in cell nuclei is measured and compound IC₅₀s are determined (Kau et al, 2003).

MTT Cell Proliferation Assay

The MTT cell proliferation assay was used to study the cytotoxic properties of the compounds. The assay was performed according to the method described by Roche Molecular Biochemicals, with minor modifications. The assay is based on the cleavage of the tetrazolium salt, MTT, in the presence of an electron-coupling reagent. The water-insoluble formazan salt produced must be solubilized in an additional step. Cells grown in a 96-well tissue culture plate were incubated with the MTT solution for approximately 4 hours. After this incubation period, a water-insoluble formazan dye formed. After solubilization, the formazan dye was quantitated using a scanning multi-well spectrophotometer (ELISA reader). The absorbance revealed directly correlates to the cell number. The cells were seeded at 5,000-10,000 cells in each well of 96-well plate in 100 μL of fresh culture medium and were allowed to attach overnight. The stock solutions of the compounds were diluted in 100 μL cell culture medium to obtain eight concentrations of each test compound, ranging from 1 nM to 30 μM. After incubation for approximately 64-72 hours, 20 μL of CellTiter 96 Aqueous One Solution Reagent (Promega, G358B) was added to each well and the plate was returned to the incubator (37° C.; 5% CO₂) until an absolute OD of 1.5 was reached for the control cells. All optical densities were measured at 490 nm using a Vmax Kinetic Microplate Reader (Molecular Devices). In most cases, the assay was performed in duplicate and the results were presented as a mean percent inhibition to the negative control±SE. The following formula was used to calculate the percent of inhibition: Inhibition (%)=(1−(OD_(o)/OD))×100.

The compounds were tested against Z138, MM1S and 3T3 cells. The Z138 cell line is a mature B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell line derived from a patient with chronic lumphocytic leukemia. The MM1S cell line was established from the peripheral blood of a human multiple myeloma patient. 3T3 cells are standard fibroblast cells; they were originally isolated from Swiss mouse embryo tissue.

The results of the MTT assay are reported in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Assay Results for Exemplary Compounds (A = <100 nM; B = 100 nM to <5 μM; C = 5 μM to 30 μM; D = >30 μM; NT = Not tested). Cmpd. MTT MTT MTT No. Structure (MM1S) (Z138) (3T3) Name 100

A A D (E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(N- cyclopropylsulfamoyl)phenyl) acrylamide 101

A A A (E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4- (cyclopropylsulfonyl)phenyl) acrylamide 102

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3- (methylsulfonamido)phenyl) acrylamide 103

A B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4- (methylsulfonyl)phenyl) acrylamide 104

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4- (N,N- dimethylsulfamoyl)phenyl) acrylamide 105

A A B (E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4- ((4,4-difluoropiperidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 106

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-trlazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((4- (trifluoromethyl)piperidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 107

A A B (E)-2-(4-(azetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)-3- (3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H- 1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)acrylamide 108

A B B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4- (morpholinosulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 109

B B B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(piperidin-1- ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 110

A A B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((3- fluoroazetidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 111

A A B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((3,3- difluoroazetidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 112

A A B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-(pyrrolidin-1- ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 113

A A A (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((3,3- difluoropyrrolidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 114

A A A (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((4- fluoropiperidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 115

B B B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((4- methylpiperazin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 116

B B B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((2,2- dimethylmorpholino)sulfonyl)phenyl) acrylamide 117

A A B (R, E)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4- triazol-1-yl)-2-(4-((3-fluoropyrrolidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 118

A A B (E)-2-(4-((1,4-oxazepan-4- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)-3-(3-(3,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4- triazol-1-yl)acrylamide 119

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3- (morpholinosulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 120

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((4- fluoropiperidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 121

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((3,3- difluoroazetidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 122

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((4,4- difluoropiperidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 123

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((3- fluoroazetidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 124

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((4- methylpiperazin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 125

B B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-(pyrrolidin-1- ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 126

C B D (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((4- (trifluoromethyl)piperidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide 127

B B B (E)-2-(3-(azetidin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)-3- (3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1H- 1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)acrylamide 128

D B B (E)-3-(3-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-2-(3-((3,3- difluoropyrrolidin-1- yl)sulfonyl)phenyl)acrylamide

BIBLIOGRAPHY

-   Cronshaw J M and Matunis M J. 2004. The nuclear pore complex:     disease associations and functional correlations TRENDS Endocrin     Metab. 15:34-39 -   Falini B et al. 2006. Both carboxy-terminus NES motif and mutated     tryptophan(s) are crucial for aberrant nuclear export of     nucleophosmin leukemic mutants in NPMc+AML Blood. 107:4514-4523. -   Cai X and Liu X. 2008. Inhibition of Thr-55 phosphorylation restores     p53 nuclear localization and sensitizes cancer cells to DNA damage.     PNAS. 105:16958-16963. -   Daelemans D, Afonina E, Nilsson J 2002 A synthetic HIV-1 Rev     inhibitor interfering with the CRM1-mediated nuclear export. Proc     Natl Acad Sci USA 99(22):14440-5.98052-2517. -   Davis J R et al. 2007. Controlling protein compartmentalization to     overcome disease Pharmaceut Res. 24:17-27. -   Freundt E, Yu L, Park E, et al 2009 Molecular determinants for     subcellular localization of the severe acute respiratory syndrome     coronavirus open reading frame 3b protein. J Virol 83(13):6631-40. -   Ghildyal R, Ho A, Dias M, et al 2009 The respiratory syncytial virus     matrix protein possesses a CRM1-mediated nuclear export mechanism. J     Virol 83(11):5353-62. -   Ghosh C C et al 2008 Analysis of nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of NF     kappa B proteins in human leukocytes. Methods Mol Biol. 457:279-92. -   Gupta N et al 2008 Retinal tau pathology in human glaucomas. Can J     Ophthalmol. 2008 February; 43(1):53-60. -   HoshinoL et al. 2008. Combined effects of p53 gene therapy and     leptomycin B in human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Oncology.     75:113-119. -   Lain S et al. 1999a An inhibitor of nuclear export activates the p53     response and induces the localization of HDM2 and p53 to     U1A-positive nuclear bodies associated with the PODs Exp Cell Res.     248:457-472. -   Lain S et al. 1999b. Accumulating active p53 in the nucleus by     inhibition of nuclear export: a novel strategy to promote the p53     tumor suppressor function Exp Cell Res. 253:315. -   Muller P A et al. 2009 Nuclear-cytosolic transport of COMMD1     regulates NF-kappaB and HIF-1 activity. Traffic 10(5):514-27. -   Mutka S 2007 Nuclear Export Inhibitors (NEIs) as novel cancer     therapies AACR Annual Meeting. Poster 5609. -   Mutka S, Yang W, Dong S, et al. 2009. Identification of nuclear     export inhibitors with potent anticancer activity in vivo. Cancer     Res. 69: 510-7. -   Nakahara J et al. 2009. Abnormal expression of TIP30 and arrested     nucleocytoplasmic transport within oligodendrocyte precursor cells     in multiple sclerosis J Clin Invest. 119:169-181. -   Noske A et al. 2008. Expression of the nuclear export protein     chromosomal region maintenance/exportin 1/Xpo1 is a prognostic     factor in human ovarian cancer. Cancer. 112:1733-1743. -   Pollard V & Malim M. 1998 The HIV-1 Rev protein Annu Rev Microbiol     52:491-532. -   Rawlinson S, Pryor M, Wright P, Jans D 2009 CRM1-mediated nuclear     export of dengue virus RNA polymerase NS5 modulates interleukin-8     induction and virus production. J Biol Chem 284(23):15589-97. -   Sanchez V, Mahr J, Orazio N, et al 2007 Nuclear export of the human     cytomegalovirus tegument protein pp65 requires cyclin-dependent     kinase activity and the CRM1 exporter. J Virol 81(21):11730-6. -   Sorokin A V et al. 2007. Nucleocytoplasmic transport of proteins.     Biochemistry 72:1439-1457. -   Terry L J et al. 2007. Crossing the nuclear envelope: hierarchical     regulation of nucleocytoplasmic transport. Science 318:1412-1416. -   Van der Watt P J et al. 2008. The Karyopherin proteins, CRM1 and     Karyopherin beta1, are overexpressed in cervical cancer and are     critical for cancer cell survival and proliferation. Int J Canc.     124:1829-1840. -   Walsh M D et al. 2008 Exportin 1 inhibition attenuates nuclear     factor-kappaB-dependent gene expression. Shock 29:160-166. -   Williams P, Verhagen J, Elliott G 2008 Characterization of a     CRM1-dependent nuclear export signal in the C terminus of herpes     simplex virus type 1 tegument protein UL47. J Virol 82(21):10946-52. -   Yang W 2007 Anti-tumor activity of novel nuclear export inhibitors     (NEIs) in multiple murine leukemia models. AACR Annual Meeting.     Poster 5597. -   Yao Y et al. 2009. The expression of CRM1 is associated with     prognosis in human osteosarcoma. Oncol Rep. 21:229-35. -   Zimmerman T L et al 2006 Nuclear export of retinoid X receptor alpha     in response to interleukin-1beta-mediated cell signaling: roles for     JNK and SER260. J Biol Chem281:15434-15440.

The teachings of all patents, published applications and references cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to example embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound of structural formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: X is —C(H)— or —N—; each R¹, if present, is independently selected from —CF₃, —CN, halo, —OH, C₁-C₃ alkyl, C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl, 3-18-membered heterocyclyl, —NH₂, halo-C₁-C₃ alkyl, —NO₂, —NH(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —C(O)O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —N(C₁-C₃ alkyl)(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —C(O)OH, —C(O)—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ haloalkyl), and —S—(C₁-C₃ alkyl); R² is a 6-18-membered aryl or a 5-18-membered heteroaryl substituted with one or more substituents, wherein at least one substituent is —S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸ or N(H)S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸; R^(b) is selected from —C(O)—N(R⁵)(R⁶), —C(O)—O—R³, —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁵)(R⁶), —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—C(O)—R⁴ and —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—S(O)₁₋₂—R⁴; wherein: R³ is selected from hydrogen, —C₁-C₄ alkyl, —C₂-C₄ alkenyl, —C₂-C₄ alkynyl, C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, C₆-C₁₈ aryl, 3-18-member heterocyclyl and 5-18-member heteroaryl; R⁴ is selected from —N(H)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —N(C₁-C₄ alkyl)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —C₁-C₆ alkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-C₆-C₁₈ aryl, and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-5-18-member heteroaryl; R⁵ and R⁶ are each independently selected from hydrogen, —C₁-C₄ alkyl, —C₂-C₄ alkenyl, —C₂-C₄ alkynyl, C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, C₆-C₁₈ aryl, 3-18-member heterocyclyl and 5-18-member heteroaryl; or R⁵ and R⁶ are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are commonly attached to form a 3-18-member heterocyclyl or 5-18-member heteroaryl; and each R⁷ is independently hydrogen or —C₁-C₄ alkyl; R⁸ is selected from —N(R⁹)—R¹⁰, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, (C₁-C₄)haloalkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene) C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl; R⁹ is hydrogen or —C₁-C₄ alkyl; R¹⁰ is selected from —(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)haloalkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl; or R⁹ and R¹⁰ are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are commonly attached to form a 4-7-membered heterocyclyl; n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, wherein: unless otherwise designated, each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkylene, carbocyclyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl and heteroaryl is optionally and independently substituted.
 2. The compound of claim 1, represented by structural formula III:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein X is N.
 4. The compound of claim 1, wherein X is C(H).
 5. The compound of anyone one of claims 1-4, wherein R^(b) is selected from —C(O)—NH₂, —C(O)—OH, —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁵)(R⁶), —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—C(O)—R⁴ and —C(O)—N(R⁷)—N(R⁷)—S(O)₁₋₂—R⁴.
 6. The compound of claim 5, wherein R^(b) is selected from —C(O)—OH; —C(O)—NH₂; —C(O)—NH—NH(R⁶), wherein R⁶ is an optionally substituted 5-18-member heteroaryl; —C(O)—NH—NH—C(O)—R⁴; and —C(O)—NH—NH—S(O)₁₋₂—R⁴ wherein R⁴ is selected from optionally substituted —N(H)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —N(C₁-C₄ alkyl)(C₃-C₆ cycloalkyl), —C₁-C₆ alkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl and —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-5-18-member heteroaryl.
 7. The compound of claim 6, wherein R^(b) is —C(O)NH₂.
 8. The compound of any one of claims 1-7, wherein R² is a 6-12-membered aryl or a 5-12-membered heteroaryl.
 9. The compound of claim 8, wherein R² is phenyl.
 10. The compound of claim 8, wherein R² is a 5-6-membered heteroaryl.
 11. The compound of claim 10, wherein R² is a 5-membered heteroaryl.
 12. The compound of claim 11, wherein the 5-membered-heteroaryl is pyrrolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, thiadiazolyl, or oxadiazolyl.
 13. The compound of claim 10, wherein R² is a 6-membered heteroaryl.
 14. The compound of claim 13, wherein the 6-membered-heteroaryl is pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl or triazinyl.
 15. The compound of any one of claims 1-14, wherein the at least one substituent of R² is —S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸.
 16. The compound of any one of claims 1-14, wherein the at least one substituent of R² is —N(H)S(O)₁₋₂—R⁸.
 17. The compound of any one of claims 1-16, wherein R⁸ is —N(R⁹)—R¹⁰.
 18. The compound of claim 17, wherein R⁸ is —N(Me)-Me or —N(H)-cyclopropyl.
 19. The compound of any one of claims 1-16, wherein R⁸ is —(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)haloalkyl, —(C₀-C₄ alkylene-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl, or —(C₀-C₄ alkylene)-3-18-member heterocyclyl wherein each alkyl, carbocyclyl and heterocyclyl is optionally substituted.
 20. The compound of claim 19, wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted (C₀-C₄ alkylene)-C₃-C₁₈ carbocyclyl.
 21. The compound of claim 20, wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted (C₃-C₆)-carbocyclyl.
 22. The compound of claim 21, wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted cyclopropyl.
 23. The compound of any one of claims 1-16, wherein R⁸ is an optionally substituted 3-12-membered heterocyclyl.
 24. The compound of claim 23, wherein R⁸ is pyrrolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, thiadiazolyl, or oxadiazolyl; and wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted.
 25. The compound of any one of claims 1-24, wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted with 1, 2 or 3 substituents independently selected from halo, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, halo-(C₁-C₄)alkyl, (C₁-C₄)alkoxy, (C₁-C₄)thioalkoxy, hydroxyl, amino, (C₁-C₄)alkylamino, (C₁-C₄)dialkylamino, sulfhydryl, cyano, phenyl and a 5-6-membered heteroaryl.
 26. The compound of claim 25, wherein R⁸ is substituted with 1, 2 or 3 substituents independently selected from halo, hydroxyl, halo(C₁-C₃)alkyl, (C₁-C₃)alkyl and (C₁-C₃)alkoxy.
 27. The compound of claim 25, wherein R⁸ is optionally substituted with 1, 2 or 3 substituents independently selected from fluoro, chloro, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, —CF₃, amino and cyano.
 28. The compound claim 23, wherein R⁸ is selected from:


29. The compound of any one of claims 1 and 3-28, wherein n is 0, 1 or
 2. 30. The compound of any one of claims 1 and 3-29, wherein n is 1 or 2 and each R¹ is independently selected from halo, (C₁-C₄)alkyl, (C₁-C₄)haloalkyl and —O—(C₁-C₄)alkyl.
 31. The compound of any one of claims 1 and 3-28, wherein the compound is represented by the following structural formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: R^(1a) and R^(1b) are independently selected from —CF₃, —CN, halo, —OH, (C₁-C₃)alkyl, (C₃-C₆)cycloalkyl, 3-12-membered heterocyclyl, halo-(C₁-C₃)alkyl, —NH₂, —NO₂, —NH(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —N(C₁-C₃ alkyl)(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —C(O)OH, —C(O)O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —C(O)—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ alkyl), —O—(C₁-C₃ haloalkyl), and —S—(C₁-C₃ alkyl); and m is 0 or
 1. 32. The compound of claim 31, wherein R^(1a) is halo or (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl.
 33. The compound of claim 32, wherein R^(1a) is (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl.
 34. The compound of any one of claims 31-33, wherein R^(1b) is (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl or —O(C₁-C₃)alkyl.
 35. The compound of claim 34, wherein R^(1b) is (C₁-C₃)haloalkyl.
 36. The compound of claim 31, wherein R^(1a) is —CF₃ and R^(1b) is —CF₃.
 37. A compound represented by any one of the following structural formulas:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 38. A pharmaceutically composition comprising a compound of any one of the preceding claims, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 39. A method for treating a disorder associated with CRM1 activity, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of any one of claims 1-37, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a composition of claim
 38. 40. The method according to claim 39, wherein the disorder is selected from a proliferative disorder, cancer, an inflammatory disorder, an autoimmune disorder, a viral infection, an ophthalmological disorder, a neurodegenerative disorder, a disorder of abnormal tissue growth, a blood disorder, a disorder related to food intake, an allergy, and a respiratory disorder.
 41. The method according to claim 41, wherein the disorder is cancer.
 42. The method according to claim 39, wherein the disorder is beta thalassemia.
 43. A method for promoting wound healing in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of any one of claims 1-37, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a composition of claim
 38. 44. A compound represented by any one of the structural formulas listed in Table
 1. 